Plasticity in ejaculate composition is predicted as an adaptive response to the evolutionary selective pressure of sperm competition. However, to respond rapidly to local competitive conditions requires dynamic modulation in the production of functionally relevant ejaculate proteins. Here we combine metabolic labeling of proteins with proteomics to explore the opportunity for such modulation within mammalian ejaculates. We assessed the rate at which proteins are synthesized and incorporated in the seminal vesicles of male house mice (Mus musculus domesticus), where major seminal fluid proteins with potential roles in sperm competition are produced. We compared rates of protein turnover in the seminal vesicle with those during spermatogenesis, the timing of which is well known in mice. The subjects were fed a diet containing deuterated valine ([ 2 H 8 ]valine) for up to 35 days, and the incorporation of dietary-labeled amino acid into seminal vesicle-or sperm-specific proteins was assessed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry of samples recovered from the seminal vesicle lumen and cauda epididymis, respectively. Analyses of epididymal contents were consistent with the known duration of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in this species and in addition revealed evidence for a subset of epididymal proteins subject to rapid turnover. For seminal vesicle proteins, incorporation of the stable isotope was evident from day 2 of labeling, reaching a plateau of labeling by day 24. Hence, even in the absence of copulation, the seminal vesicle proteins and certain epididymal proteins demonstrate considerable turnover, a response that is consonant with the

PCR amplification and sequencing of phylogenetic markers, primarily Small Sub-Unit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) genes, has been the paradigm for defining the taxonomic composition of microbiomes. However, ‘universal’ SSU rRNA gene PCR primer sets are likely to miss much of the diversity therein. We sequenced a library comprising purified and reverse-transcribed SSU rRNA (RT-SSU rRNA) molecules from the canine oral microbiome and compared it to a general bacterial 16S rRNA gene PCR amplicon library generated from the same biological sample. In addition, we have developed BIONmeta, a novel, open-source, computer package for the processing and taxonomic classification of the randomly fragmented RT-SSU rRNA reads produced. Direct RT-SSU rRNA sequencing revealed that 16S rRNA molecules belonging to the bacterial phyla Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Spirochaetes, were most abundant in the canine oral microbiome (92.5% of total bacterial SSU rRNA). The direct rRNA sequencing approach detected greater taxonomic diversity (1 additional phylum, 2 classes, 1 order, 10 families and 61 genera) when compared with general bacterial 16S rRNA amplicons from the same sample, simultaneously provided SSU rRNA gene inventories of Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya, and detected significant numbers of sequences not recognised by ‘universal’ primer sets. Proteobacteria and Spirochaetes were found to be under-represented by PCR-based analysis of the microbiome, and this was due to primer mismatches and taxon-specific variations in amplification efficiency, validated by qPCR analysis of 16S rRNA amplicons from a mock community. This demonstrated the veracity of direct RT-SSU rRNA sequencing for molecular microbial ecology.