Selenium excess can cause toxicity symptoms, e.g. root growth inhibition in non-hyperaccumulator plants such as Arabidopsis. Selenite-induced hormonal and signalling mechanisms in the course of development are poorly understood; therefore this study set out to investigate the possible hormonal and signalling processes using transgenic and mutant Arabidopsis plants. Significant alterations were observed in the root architecture of the selenite-treated plants, due to the loss of cell viability in the root apex. During mild selenite excess, the plants showed symptoms of the morphogenic response: primary root (PR) shortening and increased initiation of laterals, ensuring better nutrient and water uptake and stress acclimation. As well as lower meristem cell activity, the second reason for the Se-induced growth hindrance is the hormonal imbalance, since the in situ expression of the auxin-responsive DR5::GUS, and consequently the auxin levels, significantly decreased, while that of the cytokinin-inducible ARR5::GUS and the ethylene biosynthetic ACS8::GUS increased. It is assumed that auxin and ethylene might positively regulate selenium tolerance, since reduced levels of them resulted in sensitivity. Moreover, high cytokinin levels caused notable selenite tolerance. During early seedling development, nitric oxide (NO) contents decreased but hydrogen peroxide levels increased reflecting the antagonism between the two signal molecules during Se excess. High levels of NO in gsnor1-3, lead to selenite tolerance, while low NO production in nia1nia2 resulted in selenite sensitivity. Consequently, NO derived from the root nitrate reductase activity is responsible for the large-scale selenite tolerance in Arabidopsis.

In plant organs, Cu(2+) excess results in severe morphological responses during which the endogenous hormonal balance and signal transduction are affected. Auxin and NO negatively regulate each other's level and NO intensifies the metal-induced cotyledon expansion, but mitigates elongation processes under Cu(2+) exposure.

Nitric oxide improves copper tolerance via modulation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide levels. This reflects the necessity of a well-coordinated interplay between NO and ROS during stress tolerance. Copper (Cu) excess causes toxicity and one probable consequence of this is the disturbance of cell redox state maintenance, inter alia, by reactive oxygen- (ROS) and nitrogen species (RNS). The objective of this paper was to examine the role of nitric oxide (NO) in Cu stress tolerance and its relationship with ROS in Arabidopsis. In agar-grown seedlings, concentration-dependent Cu accumulation was observed. The 5 μM Cu resulted in reduced cell viability in the NO overproducing nox1 and gsnor1-3 root tips compared to the wild-type (WT). In contrast, 25 and 50 μM Cu caused higher viability in these mutants, while in the NO-lacking nia1nia2 lower viability was detected than in the WT. The exogenous NO donor enhanced cell viability and scavenging endogenous NO decreased it in Cu-exposed WT seedlings. Besides, SNP in nia1nia2 roots led to the improvement of viability. The ascorbic acid-deficient mutants (vtc2-1, vtc2-3) possessing slightly elevated ROS levels proved to be Cu sensitive, while miox4 showing decreased ROS production was more tolerant to Cu than the WT. In nox1 and gsnor1-3, Cu did not induce superoxide formation, and H₂O₂ accumulation occurred only in the case of NO deficiency. Based on these, under mild stress NO intensifies cell injury, while in the case of severe Cu excess it contributes to better viability. ROS were found to be responsible for aggravation of Cu-induced damage. NO alleviates acute Cu stress via modulation of O₂(·-) and H₂O₂ levels reflecting the necessity of a well-coordinated interplay between NO and ROS during stress tolerance.

Heavy metals (HMs) are toxic pollutants, which can negatively affect the physiological processes of plants; moreover, HMs can be present in the food chain endangering people's health. The aim of this study was to investigate the early physiological events during HM exposure in the root tips of the food plant Pisum sativum L. Ten-day-old pea plants were treated with 100 lM CdCl 2 or CuSO 4 , in nutrient solution for 48 h. We studied the rapid formation of different reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 and superoxide radical O 2 Á-) and reactive nitrogen species (nitric oxide NOÁ and peroxynitrite ONOO -) together with membrane damage and cell death in the meristem cells of pea roots using in vivo and in situ microscopic methods. In our experimental system, copper and cadmium induced the formation of H 2 O 2 and NO. Two hours of heavy metal treatments resulted in an increased O 2 Á-formation; however, later the level of this reactive molecule dramatically decreased. We found that high levels of NO were needed for ONOO -production under HM exposure. A fast loss of membrane integrity and decreased cell viability were detected in root tips of copper-treated plants. The effects of cadmium seemed to be slower compared to copper, but this non-essential metal also caused cell death. We concluded that viability decreased when NO and H 2 O 2 levels were simultaneously high in the same tissues. Using the NO scavenger it was also evidenced that NO generation is essential for cell death induction under copper or cadmium stress.

Selenite oppositely modifies cytokinin and nitric oxide metabolism in Arabidopsis organs. A mutually negative interplay between the molecules exists in selenite-exposed roots; and their overproduction causes selenite insensitivity. Selenium-induced phytotoxicity is accompanied by developmental alterations such as primary root (PR) shortening. Growth changes are provoked by the modulation of hormone status and signalling. Cytokinin (CK) cooperates with the nitric oxide (NO) in many aspects of plant development; however, their interaction under abiotic stress has not been examined. Selenite inhibited the growth of Arabidopsis seedlings and reduced root meristem size through cell division arrest. The CK-dependent pARR5::GUS activity revealed the intensification of CK signalling in the PR tip, which may be partly responsible for the root meristem shortening. The selenite-induced alterations in the in situ expressions of cytokinin oxidases (AtCKX4::GUS, AtCKX5::GUS) are associated with selenite-triggered changes of CK signalling. In wild-type (WT) and NO-deficient nia1nia2 root, selenite led to the diminution of NO content, but CK overproducer ipt-161 and -deficient 35S:CKX2 roots did not show NO decrease. Exogenous NO (S-nitroso-N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine, SNAP) reduced the pARR5::GFP and pTCS::GFP expressions. Roots of the 35S:CKX and cyr1 plants suffered more severe selenite-triggered viability loss than the WT, while in ipt-161 and gsnor1-3 no obvious viability decrease was observed. Exogenous NO ameliorated viability loss, but benzyladenine intensified it. Based on the results, selenite impacts development by oppositely modifying CK signalling and NO level. In the root system, CK signalling intensifies which possibly contributes to the nitrate reductase-independent NO diminution. A mutually negative CK-NO interplay exists in selenite-exposed roots; however, overproduction of both molecules worsens selenite sensing. Hereby, we suggest novel regulatory interplay and role for NO and CK in abiotic stress signalling.