Review of World Urban Heat Islands: Many Linked to Increased MortalityMedical and health researchers have shown that fatalities during heat waves are most commonly due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, primarily from heat's negative effect on the cardiovascular system. In an attempt to control one's internal temperature, the body's natural instinct is to circulate large quantities of blood to the skin. However, to peiform this protective measure against overheating actually harms the body by inducing extra strain on the heart. This excess strain has the potential to trigger a cardiac event in those with chronic health problems, such as the elderly, Cui et al. Frumkin showed that the relationship of mortality and temperature creates a J-shaped function, showing a steeper slope at higher temperatures. Records show that more casualties have resulted from heat waves than hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes together. This statistic's significance is that extreme heat events (EHEs) are becoming more frequent, as shown by Stone et al. Their analysis shows a growth trend of EHEs by 0.20 days/year in U.S. cities between 1956 and 2005, with a 95% confidence inten-al and uncertainty of ±0.6. This means that there were 10 more days of extreme heat conditions in 2005 than in 1956. Studies held from 1989 to 2000 in 50 U.S. cities recorded a rise of 5.7% in mortality during heat waves. The research of Schifano et al. revealed that Rome's elderly population endures a higher mortality rate during heat waves, at 8% excess for the 65-74 age group and 15% for above 74. Even more staggering is findings ofDousset et al. on French cities during the 2003 heat wave. Small towns saw an average excess mortality rate of 40%, while Paris witnessed an increase of 141%. During this period, a 0.5 °C increase above the average minimum nighttime temperature doubled the risk of death in the elderly. Heat-related illnesses and mortality rates have slightly decreased since 1980, regardless of the increase in temperatures. Statistics from the U.S. Census state that the U.S. population without air conditioning saw a drop of 32% from 1978 to 2005, resting at 15%. Despite the increase in air conditioning use, a study done by Kalkstein through 2007 proved that the shielding effects of air conditioning reached their terminal effect in the mid-1990s. Kan et al. hypothesize in their study of Shanghai that the significant difference in fatalities from the 1998 and 2003 heat waves was due to the increase in use of air conditioning. Protective factors have mitigated the danger of heat on those vulnerable to it, however projecting foi-ward the heat increment related to sprawl may exceed physiologic adaptation thresholds. It has been studied and reported that urban heat islands (UHI) exist in the following world cities and their countries and/or states: and Delhi, India. The strongest being Shanghai, Bangkok, Beijing,10, and 12 °C, respectively. Of the above world cities. Hong Kong, Bangkok, Delhi, Bangladesh, London, Kyoto, Osaka, and Berlin have be...

Energy is a big challenge in the coming years. The global population is increasing. Not only are there more people in the world, but the human drive to increase living standards have increased individual energy demands. Growing energy needs were typically met by finding new sources of fossil fuels. People have fortunately begun to realize the adverse environmental impact of burning fossil fuels and that this practice cannot be maintained indefinitely, leading to renewed interest in photovoltaic technologies. The discovery of the photoelectric effect brought hope to the objective of helping to fill the world energy needs with an already continuously delivered source. The discovery of the photoelectric effect was the birth of the idea, but it was the development of the crystalline silicon cell that marked the beginning of the industry. The cost and inefficiency of these solar panels have prevented them from becoming an economically competitive form of everyday power generation. Cost was reduced with the introduction of amorphous silicon thin-film cells despite slightly lower efficiencies. Their lower manufacturing costs have allowed solar energy to be included in more applications: the costs have not been reduced enough to compete with current grid rates. The current trend in research suggests that the application of nanotechnology may be the awaited break needed to break this cost barrier. Nanotechnology promises to reduce cost because they require less controlled conditions, which will greatly reduce the cost per cell, and the initial cost of a new cell type. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are being researched and developed to help solve problems that have prevented the use of other promising technologies, and improving efficiencies of those technologies that have been developed. The addition of nanoparticles to the matrix is a possible way to improve electron transport, and nanotubes could be used in conjunction with nanoparticles. The science of interactions and addition of nanoparticles and their function in solar photovoltaic cells is known, but still developing. Nanoscience has produced proof-of-concept photovoltaic cells made of small peifect crystals, rather than large, perfect silicon crystals that are more expensive to produce. Nanowhiskers are being experimented as new antireflective coating. Sensitizing dyes are being used to increase the range and location of the wavelengths that can be absorbed to be more favorable to sunlight, allowing the use of materials that lack this key characteristic. Quantum dots could be an improvement to these dyes, as the smaller particles will have the added benefit of having multiple electrons created per photon without impeding election transfer. Recent research has also shown a method to transform optical radiation into electrical current that could lead to self-powering molecular circuits and efficient data storage. The many possible applications of nanotechnology make photovoltaic cells a promising pursuit.

Cases of death during heat waves are most commonly due to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, with the main contribution from the negative effect of heat on the cardiovascular system. In an attempt to control the body temperature, the body’s natural instinct is to circulate large quantities of blood to the skin. However while trying to protect itself from overheating, the body actually harms itself by inducing extra strain on the heart. This excess strain has the potential to trigger a cardiac event in those with chronic health problems, such as the elderly. Those in the U.S.A. between the ages of 65 and 74 are at a higher risk of mortality during heat waves when they are single, have a history of chronic pulmonary disease, or suffer from a psychiatric disorder. In the older group, 75+, single people are again more vulnerable as well as women. The relationship of mortality and temperature creates a J-shaped function, showing a steeper slope at higher temperatures. Records show that more casualties have resulted from heat waves than hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes together. The significance of this is that the U.S. suffers the highest damage total from natural catastrophes annually. Studies held from 1989–2000 in 50 U.S. cities recorded 1.6% more deaths during cold temperature events, as opposed to a staggering 5.7% increase during heat waves. People are at risk when living in large metropolitan areas, especially those mentioned above, due to the heat island effect. Urban areas suffer heat increases from the combination of global warming effects as well as localized heat island properties. It is flawed to claim that the contribution of anthropogenic heat generation to the heat island effect is small. Analyzing the trend of extreme heat events (EHEs) between 1956 and 2005 showed an increase on average of 0.20 days/year, on a 95% confidence interval with uncertainty of ±0.6. This trend follows the recorded data for 2005 with 10 more heat events per city than in 1956. Compact cities experience an average of 5.6 days of extreme heat conditions annually, compared to that of 14.8 for sprawling cities. The regional climate, city populace, or pace of population growth however does not affect this effect. Statistics from the U.S. Census state that the U.S. population without air conditioning saw a drop of 32% from 1978 to 2005, resting at 15%. Despite the increase in air conditioning use, the positive affects of it may have run their course as a critical point may have been reached. A study done by Kalkstein through 2007 proved that the shielding effects of air conditioning reached their terminal effect in the mid-1990s. Heat-related illnesses and mortality rates have slightly decreased since 1980, regardless of the increase in temperatures. This may be in part to the increase in availability of air conditioning, and other protective measures, to the public. Protective factors have mitigated the danger of heat on those vulnerable to it, however projecting forward the heat increment related to sprawl may exceed physiologic adaptation thresholds.

A series of workshops for staff working with profoundly handicapped children was organized, the main concern of which was to improve the teaching approaches with such a population. The workshops were the result of an innovative attempt by the British Psychological Society's Standing Committee on Handicap to apply current knowledge of the real life problems of work settings in schools or hospitals where children are educated. The workshops covered a period of 3 months with approximately one term between the first and second. Participants attended in pairs, one member of each pair being either a clinical or educational psychologist, and a variety of problems presented by the children were tackled. This paper attempts to describe the structure and operation of the workshops, to evaluate their outcome, and to suggest ideas for the future of such an approach.