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To develop and assess a method of palliative radiotherapy utilising a kilovoltage imaging system incorporated with a linear accelerator. The conventionally separate procedures of simulation, planning and treatment were merged into a single appointment on a linear accelerator. The process was tested using a humanoid phantom and hypothetical treatment scenarios. A clinical investigation was then undertaken for patients requiring palliative radiotherapy. A total of 10 treatment sites were simulated, planned and treated using the online approach. Each step was timed for both the phantom and patient treatments and was compared with a simulation process involving a separate appointment on a conventional simulator. The contrast and resolution achievable with the linear accelerator-based imaging system was found to be comparable with a conventional simulator. Bony anatomy was plainly visible and suitable for target definition. The mean total treatment time for the humanoid phantom (n = 5) was 21.4 ± 0.9 (standard error) mins. The mean total treatment time for actual patients (n = 10) was 25.7 ± 1.6 mins (the mean simulation, planning and treatment times were 11.0 ± 0.5 mins, 14.5 ± 1.0 mins and 3.6 ± 0.2 mins, respectively). This study demonstrated that palliative radiotherapy treatments can be simulated, planned and treated in a single cohesive patient appointment, using an online approach that is technically comparable with the conventional simulation method. This approach has the potential to expedite palliative radiotherapy service delivery and reduce resource burdens by minimising the number of patient appointments and wait times between appointments.

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Introduction: Current contouring guidelines for curative radiation therapy for muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) recommend margins of 1.5-2.0 cm, applied to the clinical target volume (CTV). This study assessed whether the use of volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT), cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) and strict bladder preparation allowed for a reduced planning target volume (PTV) expansion, resulting in lower doses to surrounding organs at risk (OARs). Methods: Daily CBCT images for 12 patients (382 scans total) were retrospectively reviewed against four potential PTV margins created on and exported with the reference CT scan. To form the PTVs, three isotropic expansions of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 cm were applied to the CTV, as well as an anisotropic expansion of 1.5 cm superiorly and 1.0 cm in all other dimensions. Following treatment completion, the CBCTs were visually assessed to determine the margins encapsulating the bladder. For retrospective planning purposes, the 1.0-cm and anisotropic margins were compared with the previously recommended margins to determine differences in OAR doses. Results: The 0.5-, 1.0-and 1.5-cm isotropic margins (IM) and the anisotropic margin (ANIM) covered the CTV in 46.1, 96.8, 100 and 100% of CBCTs retrospectively. Doses to OARs were significantly lower for the reduced margin plans for the small bowel, rectum and sigmoid. Conclusion: Bladder planning target volumes may be safely reduced. We endorse a PTV margin of 1.0cm anteriorly, posteriorly and inferiorly with 1.0-1.5 cm superiorly for radical whole bladder cases using strict bladder preparation, VMAT and pretreatment CBCTs.