Purpose The estimations of greenhouse gas (GHG) field emissions from fertilization and soil carbon changes are challenges associated with calculating the carbon footprint (CFP) of agricultural products. At the regional level, the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (2006a) Tier 1 approach, based on default emission factors, insufficiently accounts for emission variability resulting from pedo-climatic conditions or management practices. However, Tier 2 and 3 approaches are usually considered too complex to be practicable. In this paper, we discuss different readily available medium-effort methods to improve the accuracy of GHG emission estimates. Methods We present four case studies-two wheat crops in Germany and two peach orchards in Italy-to test the performance of Tier 1, 2, and 3 methodologies and compare the estimated results with available field measurements. The methodologies selected at Tier 2 and Tier 3 level are characterized by simple implementation and data collection, for which only a medium level of effort for stakeholders is required. The Tier 2 method consists of calculating direct and indirect N 2 O, emissions from fertilization with a multivariate empirical model which accounts for pedo-climatic and crop management conditions. The Tier 3 method entails simulation of soil carbon stock change using the Rothamsted carbon model. Results and discussion Relevant differences were found among the tested methodologies: in all case studies, the Tier 1 approach exceeded the Tier 2 estimations for fertilizer-induced emissions (up to +50 %) and the measurements. Using this higher Tier approach reduced the estimated CFP calculation of annual crops by 4 and 21 % and that of the perennial crop by 7 %. Removals related to positive soil carbon change calculated using the Tier 1 approach also exceeded the Tier 3 calculations for the studied annual crops (up to +90 %) but considerably underrated the Tier 3 estimations and measurements for perennial crops (−75 %). In this case, the impact of the selected Tier method on the final CFP results was even more relevant: an increase of 194 and 88 % for the studied annual crops and a decrease of 67 % for the perennial crop case study. Conclusions The use of higher Tiers for the estimation of land-based emissions is strongly recommended to improve the accuracy of the CFP results. The suggested mediumeffort methods tested in this study represent a good compromise between complexity reduction and accuracy improvement and can be considered reliable for the assessment of GHG mitigation potentials.

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Currently, stakeholders' increasing attention to quality is driving the wine sector to rethink and change its own production processes. Amongst product quality dimensions, the environment is gaining ever-growing attention at various levels of policy-making and business. Given its soundness, the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has become widespread in many application contexts. Apart from applications for communication purposes, LCA has also been used in the wine sector to highlight environmental hot spots in supply chains, to compare farming practices and to detect improvement options, inter alia. Case studies whose focus is the wine industry abound in high quality publications. This Chapter has a twofold focus: firstly, an analysis of the methodologies and standards of the Life Cycle Thinking concept, related to wine, and secondly, a Keywords Life cycle assessment • Wine • Life cycle-based tools • Life cycle-based methodologies • Case-studies

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