Background Agriculture contributes significantly to the welfare of smallholder farmers, but it has become highly susceptible to climate change, due to its reliance on the increasingly erratic rainfall patterns. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) offers important opportunities for enhancing food security and incomes through increased agriculture productivity. Technology evaluation through impact studies provides information on the effect of CSA on farmer welfare, thereby highlighting its potential in optimizing agriculture productivity. This paper analyses the impact of CSA adoption on food security and income of households, using cross-sectional survey data collected from 386 households across four districts in Zimbabwe. The analysis was done using the endogenous switching regression model which controls for selection bias and unobserved heterogeneity, a commonly used method in adoption impact analysis. Results The study found several agricultural and socio-economic factors which affect adoption and food security. The econometric results show that the status of soil fertility in fields, distance to input and output markets, ownership of communication assets, and Total Livestock Units (TLU) have a significant impact on the decision of farmers to adopt CSA. The Average Treatment Effects on the Treated (ATT) and Average Treatment Effects on the Untreated (ATU) were found to be positive and significant for adopters and non-adopters, indicating that CSA adoption has had a significantly positive impact on the welfare of the farmers. An analysis of the outcomes revealed that the characteristics of farmers and farms, as well as market factors, significantly affect the welfare of households. The household income, with reference to the adoption of CSA, was significantly affected by factors such as the education of household head, labour size, TLU, and asset index. Food security was influenced by factors such as the education of household head, TLU, access to sanitation, and arable land size. Conclusions The study concludes by giving policy recommendations centred on the access to inputs, sanitation, and encouraging investing in assets and TLU. The findings indicate that the adoption of CSA has a positive impact on the welfare of farmers. To exploit the full potential of these technologies, the study suggests that access to timely weather forecasts must be ensured, that sanitation must be promoted, and that incentives must be provided for agricultural input agro-dealers to decentralize to rural areas.

Smallholder farming in Zimbabwe is increasingly affected by dwindling maize (Zea mays L.) yields due to declining soil fertility and the negative effects of climate variability and change. A long-term on-farm study was established between 2004 and 2013 at the Zimuto Communal Area near Masvingo, Southern Zimbabwe to test the feasibility and viability of conservation agriculture (CA) systems under the circumstances of low fertility and erratic rainfall. CA seeding systems based on animal traction excelled and significantly increased maize productivity by up to 235% (1761 kg ha -1 ) and legume productivity by 173% (265 kg ha -1 ) as compared to the conventional control treatment. Soil quality indicators such as infiltration and soil carbon improved 64-96% and 29-97 %, respectively, over time. However, a direct link between increased infiltration and grain yield could not be established. Increased plant population, because of greater precision and moisture conservation during direct seeding as well as an improved response to fertilizer application due to gradually increasing soil carbon could be the reasons why yields on CA systems outyielded the conventional control. CA systems were more economically viable than planting crops under the normal conventional practice with mouldboard ploughs and removal of crop residues. Farmers generally rated important crop characteristics of maize planted under CA as high but weed control was rated as low, due to the lack of an appropriate herbicide under the prevailing environment. The results of this study show that CA is a potential option even in areas of climate risk and low soil fertility. However, the adoption of CA was low amongst members of the rural farming community due to the perceived risk of crop failure, lack of appropriate and accessible inputs and markets for farm produce, and lack of appropriate information and knowledge about alternative agricultural methods. This highlights the need for better resource and input availability as well as more vibrant and efficient extension services. Successful CA promotion requires that the systems are adapted to farmers' circumstances. However, CA cannot expand where farmers depend on remittances, are donor dependent, and where crop production in general is doubtful. Land uses such as extensive livestock production or game ranching may be better and more profitable alternatives for farmers in these situations.

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Climate variability and declining soil fertility pose a major threat to sustainable agronomic and economic growth in Zambia. The objective of this study was to assess crop yield, land and labor productivity of conservation agriculture (CA) technologies in Eastern Zambia. On-farm trials were run from 2012–2015 and farmers were replicates of a randomized complete block design. The trials compared three CA systems against a conventional practice. Yield and net return ha−1 were determined for maize and legume yield (kg ha−1) produced by ridge and furrow tillage, CA dibble stick planting, CA animal traction ripping and direct seeding. The dibble stick, ripline and direct seeding CA systems had 6–18, 12–28 and 8–9% greater maize yield relative to the conventional tillage system, respectively. Rotation of maize with cowpea and soybean significantly increased maize yields in all CA systems. Intercropping maize with cowpea increased land productivity (e.g., the land equivalent ratio for four seasons was 2.01) compared with full rotations under CA. Maize/cowpea intercropping in dibble stick CA produced the greatest net returns (US$312-767 ha−1) compared with dibble stick maize-cowpea rotation (US$204-657), dibble stick maize monoculture (US$108-584) and the conventional practice (US$64-516). The net-return for the animal traction CA systems showed that maize-soybean rotations using the ripper were more profitable than the direct seeder or conventional ridge and furrow systems. Agronomic and economic benefits of CA-based cropping systems highlight the good potential for improved food security and agricultural productivity for smallholder farmers.

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