Nrf2:INrf2(Keap1) are cellular sensors of chemical and radiation induced oxidative and electrophilic stress. Nrf2 is a nuclear transcription factor that controls the expression and coordinated induction of a battery of defensive genes encoding detoxifying enzymes and antioxidant proteins. This is a mechanism of critical importance for cellular protection and cell survival. Nrf2 is retained in the cytoplasm by an inhibitor INrf2. INrf2 functions as an adapter for Cul3/Rbx1 mediated degradation of Nrf2. In response to oxidative/electrophilic stress, Nrf2 is switched on and then off by distinct early and delayed mechanisms. Oxidative/electrophilic modification of INrf2cysteine151 and/or PKC phosphorylation of Nrf2serine40 results in the escape or release of Nrf2 from INrf2. Nrf2 is stabilized and translocates to the nucleus, forms heterodimers with unknown proteins, and binds antioxidant response element (ARE) that leads to coordinated activation of gene expression. It takes less than fifteen minutes from the time of exposure to switch on nuclear import of Nrf2. This is followed by activation of a delayed mechanism that controls switching off of Nrf2 activation of gene expression. GSK3β phosphorylates Fyn at unknown threonine residue(s) leading to nuclear localization of Fyn. Fyn phosphorylates Nrf2tyrosine568 resulting in nuclear export of Nrf2, binding with INrf2 and degradation of Nrf2. The switching on and off of Nrf2 protect cells against free radical damage, prevents apoptosis and promotes cell survival.
Twenty-four base pairs of the human antioxidant response element (hARE) are required for high basal transcription of the NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO 1 ) gene and its induction in response to xenobiotics and antioxidants. hARE is a unique cis-element that contains one perfect and one imperfect AP1 element arranged as inverse repeats separated by 3 bp, followed by a ''GC'' box. We report here that Jun, Fos, Fra, and
Nrf2:INrf2 (Keap1) are cellular sensors of oxidative and electrophilic stress. Nrf2 is a nuclear factor that controls the expression and coordinated induction of a battery of genes which encode detoxifying enzymes, drug transporters (MRPs), anti-apoptotic proteins and proteasomes. In the basal state, Nrf2 is constantly degraded in the cytoplasm by its inhibitor, INrf2. INrf2 functions as an adapter for Cul3/Rbx1 E3 ubiquitin ligase mediated degradation of Nrf2. Chemicals including antioxidants, tocopherols including α-tocopherol (vitamin E), phytochemicals and radiations antagonize the Nrf2:INrf2 interaction and leads to the stabilization and activation of Nrf2. The signaling events involve pre-induction, induction and post-induction responses that tightly control Nrf2 activation and repression back to the basal state. Oxidative/electrophilic signals activate unknown tyrosine kinase(s) in a pre-induction response which phosphorylates specific residues on Nrf2 negative-regulators, INrf2, Fyn and Bach1, leading to their nuclear export, ubiquitination and degradation. This prepares nuclei for unhindered import of Nrf2. Oxidative/electrophilic modification of INrf2cysteine151 followed by PKC phosphorylation of Nrf2serine40 in the induction response results in the escape or release of Nrf2 from INrf2. Nrf2 is thus stabilized and translocates to the nucleus resulting in a coordinated activation of gene expression. This is followed by a post-induction response that controls the ‘switching off’ of Nrf2-activated gene expression. GSK3β under the control of AKT and PI3K, phosphorylates Fyn leading to Fyn nuclear localization. Fyn phosphorylates Nrf2Y568 resulting in nuclear export and degradation of Nrf2. The activation and repression of Nrf2 provides protection against oxidative/electrophilic stress and associated diseases, including cancer. However, deregulation of INrf2 and Nrf2 due to mutations may lead to nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 that reduces apoptosis and promotes oncogenesis and drug resistance.
Glutathione (GSH) significantly declines in the aging rat liver. Because GSH levels are partly a reflection of its synthetic capacity, we measured the levels and activity of ␥-glutamylcysteine ligase (GCL), the rate-controlling enzyme in GSH synthesis. With age, both the catalytic (GCLC) and modulatory (GCLM) subunits of GCL decreased by 47% and 52%, respectively (P < 0.005). Concomitant with lower subunit levels, GCL activity also declined by 53% (P < 0.05). Because nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) governs basal and inducible GCLC and GCLM expression by means of the antioxidant response element (ARE), we hypothesized that aging results in dysregulation of Nrf2-mediated GCL expression. We observed an Ϸ50% age-related loss in total (P < 0.001) and nuclear (P < 0.0001) Nrf2 levels, which suggests attenuation in Nrf2-dependent gene transcription. By using gel-shift and supershift assays, a marked reduction in Nrf2͞ARE binding in old vs. young rats was noted. To determine whether the constitutive loss of Nrf2 transcriptional activity also affects the inducible nature of Nrf2 nuclear translocation, old rats were treated with (R)-␣-lipoic acid (LA; 40 mg͞kg i.p. up to 48 h), a disulfide compound shown to induce Nrf2 activation in vitro and improve GSH levels in vivo. LA administration increased nuclear Nrf2 levels in old rats after 12 h. LA also induced Nrf2 binding to the ARE, and, consequently, higher GCLC levels and GCL activity were observed 24 h after LA injection. Thus, the age-related loss in GSH synthesis may be caused by dysregulation of ARE-mediated gene expression, but chemoprotective agents, like LA, can attenuate this loss.
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