Epilepsy is a neurological disease with variable etiology and clinical manifestation, affecting more than 50 million people worldwide. Although the ultimate precipitators of seizures are neurons, it is becoming evident that epileptic activity is associated with changes in the function of other cell types, including those consisting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and regulating its permeability. The interrelationships between impaired BBB function and epilepsy are complex, as BBB dysfunction may both lead to seizures and be induced by epileptic activity. In this article, we review alterations in key BBB properties that have been found in patients with epilepsy and in animal models of the disease. We highlight emerging biomarkers for individualized treatment, implications for pharmacotherapy, and potential BBB-related targets for drug development.

Abstract. Molecular imaging allows the non-invasive assessment of membrane transporter expression and function in living subjects. Such technologies have the potential to become diagnostic and prognostic tools, allowing detection, localization, and prediction of response of tumors and their metastases to therapy. Beyond tumors, imaging can also help understand the role of transporters in adverse drug effects and drug clearance. Here, we review molecular imaging technologies that monitor transporter-mediated processes. We emphasize emerging probe substrates and potential clinical applications of imaging the function of membrane transporters in cancer.

SUMMARYOur aim was to evaluate the effects of valproic acid (VPA) on the function of the placental barrier in vivo, in pregnant mice. Studies were conducted on gestational days 12.5 (mid-gestation) or 17.5 (late gestation), following intraperitoneal treatment with 200 mg/kg VPA or the vehicle. Indocyanine green (ICG; 0.167 mg, i.v.) was used as a marker for the placental barrier permeability. Transporter expression was evaluated by quantitative -PCR. VPA treatment was associated with a 40% increase (p < 0.05) in accumulation of ICG in maternal liver in mid-pregnancy and a decrease by one fifth (p < 0.05) in late pregnancy. Ex vivo, VPA treatment led to a 20% increase (p < 0.05) in fetal ICG emission in mid-pregnancy. Also in mid-pregnancy, the placental expression of the L-type amino acid transporter, the organic anion-transporting polypeptide (Oatp)4a1 (thyroid hormone transporter), and the reduced folate carrier was lower in VPA-treated mice (p < 0.05). In late pregnancy, hepatic Oatp4a1 levels were 40% less than in controls (p > 0.05). The observed changes in placental transporter expression and function support further research into the potential role of the placenta in the adverse pregnancy outcomes of VPA. Near-infrared imaging provides a noninvasive, nonradioactive tool for future studies on the effects of epilepsy and antiepileptic drugs on tissue transport functions.

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system helps recovery following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Treatment with 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), a cerebral eCB ligand, was found to ameliorate the secondary damage. Interestingly, the fatty acid amino acid amide (FAAA) N-arachidonoyl-L-serine (AraS) exerts similar eCB dependent neuroprotective. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of the FAAA palmitoyl-serine (PalmS) following TBI. We utilized the TBI model in mice to examine the therapeutic potential of PalmS, injected 1 h following closed head injury (CHI). We followed the functional recovery of the injured mice for 28 days post-CHI, and evaluated cognitive and motor function, lesion volume, cytokines levels, molecular signaling, and infarct volume at different time points after CHI. PalmS treatment led to a significant improvement of the neurobehavioral outcome of the treated mice, compared with vehicle. This effect was attenuated in the presence of eCBR antagonists and in CB2-/- mice, compared to controls. Unexpectedly, treatment with PalmS did not affect edema and lesion volume, TNFα and IL1β levels, anti-apoptotic mechanisms, nor did it exert improvement in cognitive and motor function. Finally, co-administration of PalmS, AraS and 2-AG, did not enhance the effect of the individual drugs. We suggest that the neuroprotective action of PalmS is mediated by indirect activation of the eCB receptors following TBI. One such mechanism may involve receptor palmitoylation which has been reported to result in structural stabilization of the receptors and to an increase in their activity. Further research is required in order to establish this assumption.

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