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Important differences have recently become apparent in the forms of governance being implemented in different metropolitan regions, even among those within the same country. A number of theoretical debates attempt to explain the nature of these differences, emphasizing the importance of structural factors as well as embedded economic and social characteristics. This article aims to show that existing theoretical debates are linked by three issues that act as interfaces among them: institutions, flows in the form of material resources and regulatory power, and governance capacity and coalitions. This article explores the emerging forms of governance within the two largest metropolitan regions of Turkey, Izmir and Antalya, taking into consideration these three issues.

The project discussed in this paper represents the participatory planning of Kocaeli in Turkey, which uses the "action research" approach, a more powerful approach compared to conventional approaches with respect to the value of democracy in city-wide decision-making and the actionable outcomes salient to the needs of the community. The use of action research in planning integrates research, theory, and action. It helps manage the change through action in the process of participation, while enhancing democratic dialogue within a changing power structure. The Kocaeli project takes a position in the "process" in order to understand the nonrhetoric, and in turn, to lead to social change. The literature often provides inadequate information about procedural descriptions and methodological means, which enable research to operate in practice. This paper focuses on developing a participation model for such a process. I present the project in five sections: (1) the context; (2) the research strategy; (3) the process principles; (4) the outcomes; (5) lessons learned.