Although the U.S. child-centered approaches of Garry Landreth and Louise Guerney have the same principles and practice skills as nondirective play therapy as practiced by therapists trained at the University of York, there are a few differences in their approach. Therapists' practice of "congruence" is actively encouraged for York-trained therapists but not for Landreth and Guerney-trained therapists. The theoretical and practice rationales for expressing congruence that underlie the York approach are examined here, as well as potential pitfalls. Examples of therapists and parents verbally expressing their congruent feelings in therapy are given from both play therapy and filial therapy practice. Special attention is paid to the need for and uses of congruence when helping children and young people who were maltreated.

In adoption, children experience the loss of significant attachment relationships, based on the internal working models of their parents which were formed from birth and, rooted in memories, strongly affect them throughout childhood. Ann Courtney maintains that before children can move on to the next stage of mourning their losses, those original models have to be made explicit. She considers how this can be achieved by 'incorporating' the birth parent in some way into the daily life and relationships of the child. The likely effect of contact is discussed, as is the role of the adoptive parent and possible therapeutic intervention.