BackgroundIn schizophrenia, genetic background may provide a substrate for intrinsic maldevelopment of the brain through environmental influences, by recruiting neurotrophic factors and cytokines, to trigger the changes that lead to impaired neuronal functions. Cytokines being the key regulators of immune/inflammatory reactions are also known to influence the dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and serotonergic neurotransmission. Therefore, functional polymorphisms in cytokine genes may result in imbalances in the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine production.MethodsWe screened polymorphisms in pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine genes using a case-control association study in a South Indian population. The role of allele, genotype, haplotype, and diplotypes of these cytokine genes and their epistatic interactions were assessed in contributing to the risk of developing schizophrenia. Meta-analysis for the reported associations was also monitored for global significance.ResultsThe pro-inflammatory cytokine gene polymorphisms in IL1Ars1800587, IL6rs1800796, TNFArs361525, and IFNGrs2069718 were associated with schizophrenia. The study also provides significant evidence for strong epistatic interactions among pro-inflammatory cytokine genes IL6 and IFNG in the development of schizophrenia. In silico analysis suggested that associated risk variants were indicative of altered transcriptional activity with higher production of IL1α, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-ɤ cytokines. Meta-analysis indicated heterogeneity among study population while IL1Ars1800587 was found to be globally significant.ConclusionsIt is important to identify the nature of inflammatory response that can be amplified by the environment, to influence either Th1 response or Th2 response. The associated functional variants in the study are involved with increased expression resulting in higher production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1α, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. The interaction of immunological stressors with these high producer alleles of pro-inflammatory cytokines may suggest that even a lower threshold may be sufficient to induce a resultant chronic effect on the psycho-social and environmental stressors that may result in the development and pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Understanding environmental factors that influence the expression of these pro-inflammatory cytokine genes or their interaction can possibly help in dissecting the phenotypic variation and therapeutic response to antipsychotics in schizophrenia.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0569-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction:Mupirocin competitively inhibits bacterial isoleucyl transfer-RNA synthetase and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis. Widespread usage and over the counter availability of the drug has resulted in resistance among Staphylococcus species.Objectives:This study aimed to determine the overall prevalence of mupirocin resistance among staphylococci. Correlate clinical significance of mupirocin resistance and its relationship to clinical use.Methods:Consecutive, nonrepetitive, clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (n = 98), and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) (n = 45) from skin and soft-tissue infections between January 2014 and June 2014 were studied. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Low- and high-level mupirocin resistance was screened by using 5 µg and 200 µg discs respectively and confirmed by agar dilution. Annual consumption of mupirocin was studied and correlated with resistance.Results:High-level mupirocin resistance was found in 8.2% S. aureus and 15.6% of CoNS, while low-level mupirocin resistance was found in 17% S. aureus and 8.9% CoNS. High-level mupirocin resistance was more common in methicillin-sensitive S. aureus isolates when compared with methicillin-resistant S. aureus isolates (P < 0.05). Mupirocin resistant S. epidermidis were associated with methicillin resistance and constitutive clindamycin resistance.Conclusion:High prevalence of mupirocin resistance was found in the present study. Increased prevalence of mupirocin resistance among community-acquired staphylococci demands the judicious use of the drug in the community.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with impairments in social communication, restricted, repetitive and stereotyped behaviors. Both genetic and environmental factors are known to contribute toward pathophysiology of Autism. Environmental influences on gene expression can be mediated by methylation patterns which are established and maintained by DNA methyltransferases. Several studies in the past have investigated the role of global methylations in Autism. The present study is aimed to investigate the role of genetic variations in the DNA methyltransferase which might be critical in defining the threshold for environmental factors toward susceptibility to autism. Polymorphisms in DNA methyltransferases, DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B, and DNMT3L were screened for association with ASD in 180 autistic patients and 260 healthy controls from a south Indian population. DNMT1 rs10418707 and rs10423341, and DNMT3A rs2289195 were found to be significantly associated at genotypic and allelic level with ASD. Functional prediction indicates that these SNPs have a role in transcriptional regulation and increased expression, indicating that hypermethylation might be induced by its genotype status. The study might reflect the role of genetics variants in DNMTs in defining the threshold of environmental impact in influencing the disease or phenotype variations in ASD. © 2019 IUBMB Life, 2019

Homocysteine (Hcy) is known to be a prognostic marker for neurological, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and several other pathophysiological conditions. A sudden surge in Hcy can increase cardiovascular events. Hemodynamic modulations are known to be associated with individual's chronotype. Therefore, precise monitoring of Hcy is crucial for evaluating its impact on risk. The aim of the present study was to investigate the rhythmicity of Hcy under controlled dietary conditions and whether this rhythmicity is under the genetic control of circadian rhythm. Five subjects were selected from 200 Malayalam speaking healthy ethnic individuals who were screened for functionally critical variants of MTHFR and hCLOCK genes. MTHFR is the rate-limiting enzyme in the methionine cycle and critical for regulating Hcy levels while hCLOCK is a critical gene responsible in regulating the day and night cycles. Rhythmicity in Hcy levels were observed in all the subjects with a consensus on a morning nadir and an evening peak. Gender specific stratification of Hcy levels were observed among similar genotypes of MTHFR and hCLOCK genes. Variations from the conventional rhythmicity of Hcy were observed among similar genotypes of MTHFR and dissimilar hCLOCK genotypes. A reduced plasma Hcy in hCLOCK rs1801260 CC genotype individuals were observed in contrast to CT genotype individuals. The study tends to suggest that Hcy and body time are genetically interdependent and throws light on some of the previously unexplained reasons for variability in Hcy levels. A population specific variation of MTHFR and hCLOCK genes also highlights ethnicity specific risk management.

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