The most violent countries in the world are increasingly countries considered 'at peace'. From Honduras to Mexico to South Africa, armed violence, often by gangs, has led to high levels of casualties. Disruption of daily life due to armed violence is similar to the challenges experienced during wartime, though often without the markers or recognition associated with war. With gang violence primarily viewed as a domestic criminal issue, external support for conflict mitigation and humanitarian assistance is often low. Yet the disruptive impact of such high rates of violence is significant, and the humanitarian impact is severe. New theoretical frameworks are needed to better problematize extreme armed violence in 'peacetime' states. This article seeks to bring an understanding of the severity of armed violence in states such as El Salvador into engagement with the critical and theoretical foundations of the women, peace and security (WPS) field. Gendered dynamics shape gang violence in El Salvador, and a gender lens helps reimagine its impact. Aligning critical theory with the lived experience of this subset of armed conflict allows new directions for engagement and, in particular, offers the opportunity to reexamine long-standing assumptions of what initiates, maintains, and challenges armed violence by non-state actors in communities considered 'at peace.' This article seeks to encourage greater debate and scholarship to inform our understandings of armed conflict and gender in communities affected by gang violence, such as those in El Salvador. In these communities, the level of violence often replicates the experiences of war, and thus a WPS lens is a critical tool for analysis.

Climate change and its consequences are among the greatest challenges facing the global community, with the potential to radically alter the structures of communities, states, and international cooperation. Climate change will fundamentally reshape migration patterns around the world; as people choose to migrate to find safety and economic opportunities, their movements will affect how states manage their borders and national security and will strain further the already burdened mechanisms which help guide migration flows locally and internationally. The pressure of climate-related migration in both origin and destination communities requires rethinking international initiatives and national frameworks governing migration and resettlement. When a shock occurs, such as those caused by climate change impacts, it leaves women especially vulnerable and makes migration particularly arduous. Yet women will also be critical to determining the response to such events. In order to understand the potential impacts of climate change-related migration, it is critical to understand women’s roles and experiences. As responsive new policies and approaches are being designed, it is equally critical for women’s perspectives, needs, and expertise to be centered. This chapter provides a discussion of the gendered consequences of climate change, the legal and policy gaps that exist for understanding and addressing gendered climate change-related migration, and the role that future WPS research and analysis can play in highlighting and addressing these issues.

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