Results are consistent with existing research on gender differences in the prevalence of substance use and mood disorders, and of their co-occurrence. They highlight the potential utility of screening for substance misuse, risk taking, and poor impulse control when assessing depression in men. Future research is warranted to clarify gender-specific presentations of depression and co-occurring symptoms.

. (2016). Symptom endorsement in men versus women with a diagnosis of depression: A differential item functioning approach. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 62 (6), 549-559.Symptom endorsement in men versus women with a diagnosis of depression: A differential item functioning approach Abstract Background: There is some evidence that, in contrast to depressed women, depressed men tend to report alternative symptoms that are not listed as standard diagnostic criteria. This may possibly lead to an under-or misdiagnosis of depression in men. Aims: This study aims to clarify whether depressed men and women report different symptoms. Methods: This study used data from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing that was collected using the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Participants with a diagnosis of a depressive disorder with 12-month symptoms (n = 663) were identified and included in this study. Differential item functioning (DIF) was used to test whether depressed men and women endorse different features associated with their condition. Results: Gender-related DIF was present for three symptoms associated with depression. Depressed women were more likely to report 'appetite/weight disturbance', whereas depressed men were more likely to report 'alcohol misuse' and 'substance misuse'. Conclusion: While the results may reflect a greater risk of cooccurring alcohol and substance misuse in men, inclusion of these features in assessments may improve the detection of depression in men, especially if standard depressive symptoms are under-reported.

Objective University students are vulnerable to depression and other co‐occurring mental disorders, but few receive treatment. Male university students are at particular risk of not receiving assistance. A better understanding of gender differences in the experience of depression may assist in improving its detection and the provision of appropriate support and prevention strategies. Accordingly, this study aimed to identify whether male and female university students have different patterns of self‐reported depression and co‐occurring anxiety and stress. Method A total of 1,401 first year students from a regional Australian university completed the 21‐item version of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales. Data were collected in 2001, 2006, 2010, and 2012. Multidimensional scaling analyses were conducted to identify patterns of depression, anxiety, and stress in men and women with different depression severity. Results Depressed men reported mixed patterns of depression, anxiety, and stress that were clustered by behavioural and physiological function, whereas depressed women reported distinctive patterns of depression, anxiety, and stress as prescribed by categories of the individual Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales. Conclusions Depressed male and female university students may categorise and interpret their psychological distress differently. Depressed men might tend to categorise symptoms by function and physiology, whereas depressed women might prefer to use common verbally defined constructs of psychological distress. It may be important for mental health professionals to consider these gender differences in categorisation and patterns of symptoms when screening for depression to increase chances of university students receiving appropriately targeted treatment.