Multilevel modeling (MLM, also known as hierarchical linear modeling, HLM) is a methodological framework widely used in the social sciences to analyze data with a hierarchical structure, where lower units of aggregation are 'nested' in higher units, including longitudinal data. In economics, however, MLM is used very rarely. Instead, economists use separate econometric techniques including cluster-robust standard errors and fixed effects models. In this paper, we review the methodological literature and contrast the econometric techniques typically used in economics with the analysis of hierarchical data using MLM. Our review suggests that economic techniques are generally less convenient, flexible, and efficient compared to MLM. The important limitation of MLM, however, is its inability to deal with the omitted variable problem at the lowest level of data, while standard economic techniques may be complemented by quasi-experimental methods mitigating this problem. It is unlikely, though, that this limitation can explain and justify the rare use of MLM in economics. Overall, we conclude that MLM has been unreasonably ignored in economics, and we encourage economists to apply this framework by providing 'when and how' guidelines.

This article deals with the recently revealed paradox that contemporary Muslims score higher on Protestant work ethic than contemporary Protestants. The author tests whether this phenomenon is supported by World Values Survey (WVS) data. According to Inglehart's theory of post-materialist shift, work ethic should be stronger in the developing societies where there is a lack of existential security. The author also tests whether the effects of the Protestant work ethic extend beyond the religious population of Protestant countries. The multilevel models built on 25,437 respondents in 55 countries show no significant difference in work ethic between Muslims and Protestants. Living in a historically Protestant society does not increase work ethic, but being religious in a Protestant society does. As countries develop, work ethic is likely to decrease. This poses further questions about the universal features of religious ethics and the non-religious factors explaining the economic progress associated with the Protestant work ethic. KeywordsIslam, multilevel analysis, Protestantism, work ethic, World Values Survey Résumé Cet article se penche sur un paradoxe révélé récemment au regard de l'éthique protestante du travail selon lequel les musulmans contemporains réussissent mieux que les protestants. Afin de vérifier ce paradoxe, l'auteure s'appuie sur les données

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract