As attention–deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most frequently diagnosed developmental disorders in childhood, effective yet safe treatment options are highly important. Recent research introduced physical exercise as a potential treatment option, particularly for children with ADHD. The aim of this review was to systematically analyze potential acute and chronic effects of cardio and non-cardio exercise on a broad range of functions in children with ADHD and to explore this in adults as well. Literature on physical exercise in patients with ADHD was systematically reviewed based on categorizations for exercise type (cardio versus non-cardio), effect type (acute versus chronic), and outcome measure (cognitive, behavioral/socio-emotional, and physical/(neuro)physiological). Furthermore, the methodological quality of the reviewed papers was addressed. Cardio exercise seems acutely beneficial regarding various executive functions (e.g., impulsivity), response time and several physical measures. Beneficial chronic effects of cardio exercise were found on various functions as well, including executive functions, attention and behavior. The acute and chronic effects of non-cardio exercise remain more questionable but seem predominantly positive too. Research provides evidence that physical exercise represents a promising alternative or additional treatment option for patients with ADHD. Acute and chronic beneficial effects of especially cardio exercise were reported with regard to several cognitive, behavioral, and socio-emotional functions. Although physical exercise may therefore represent an effective treatment option that could be combined with other treatment approaches of ADHD, more well-controlled studies on this topic, in both children and adults, are needed.

The ‘Empathy Quotient’ (EQ) and ‘Systemizing Quotient’ (SQ) are used worldwide to measure people’s empathizing and systemizing cognitive styles. This study investigates the psychometric properties of the Dutch EQ and SQ in healthy participants (n = 685), and high functioning males with autism spectrum disorder (n = 42). Factor analysis provided support for three subscales of the abridged 28-item EQ: Cognitive Empathy, Emotional Empathy and Social Skills. Overall, the Dutch EQ and SQ appeared reliable and valid tools to assess empathizing and systemizing cognitive style in healthy adults and high functioning adults with autism. The literature showed good cross-cultural stability of the SQ and EQ in Western countries, but in Asian countries EQ is less stable and less sensitive to sex differences.

More than two-third of included studies showed neurodevelopmental deficits in children with liver diseases, affecting all neurodevelopmental areas. Knowledge on risk factors for impaired neurodevelopment is limited and lack of long-term follow-up is worrying, especially considering the increasing survival rates, resulting in more at-risk patients. Studying early predictors and risk factors of abnormal developmental trajectories of children with liver diseases is indicated to assess strategies to improve their long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes.

To assess long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in school-aged children with biliary atresia (BA). Study designAll Dutch children (6-12y), diagnosed with BA, were invited to participate in this study. We used validated neurodevelopmental tests to assess motor skills and cognition, and questionnaires to assess behavior. Scores were compared to age-and gender-matched Dutch norms, by means of one-sample tests. Results are given as number and percentages, or mean ± standard deviation. ResultsWe included 46 children, with a median age of 11 years (6-13y). Thirty-six children had undergone a liver transplantation (LTx; 78%). Twelve children (26%) received special education (vs 2.4% in the norm population; p<0.01). Motor outcomes were significantly affected compared to the norm population (p<0.01), with 25% normal (vs 85%), 25% borderline (vs 10%) and 50% low scores (vs 5%). Total IQ was lower in BA patients, compared to the norm population (91±18 vs 100±15; p<0.01). There were no significant differences in test scores between children with native liver and post-LTx. ConclusionsSchool-aged children with BA show neurodevelopmental impairments compared to the norm population, especially in motor skills. Our data strongly warrant evaluation of neurodevelopmental intervention programs to assess whether long-term outcomes could be improved.