Climate warming affects the phenology, local abundance and large-scale distribution of plants and pollinators. Despite this, there is still limited knowledge of how elevated temperatures affect plant-pollinator mutualisms and how changed availability of mutualistic partners influences the persistence of interacting species. Here we review the evidence of climate warming effects on plants and pollinators and discuss how their interactions may be affected by increased temperatures. The onset of flowering in plants and first appearance dates of pollinators in several cases appear to advance linearly in response to recent temperature increases. Phenological responses to climate warming may therefore occur at parallel magnitudes in plants and pollinators, although considerable variation in responses across species should be expected. Despite the overall similarities in responses, a few studies have shown that climate warming may generate temporal mismatches among the mutualistic partners. Mismatches in pollination interactions are still rarely explored and their demographic consequences are largely unknown. Studies on multi-species plant-pollinator assemblages indicate that the overall structure of pollination networks probably are robust against perturbations caused by climate warming. We suggest potential ways of studying warming-caused mismatches and their consequences for plant-pollinator interactions, and highlight the strengths and limitations of such approaches.

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The invasion of exotic species into natural habitats is considered to be a major threat to biodiversity, and many studies have examined how exotic plants directly affect native plant species through competitive interactions for abiotic resources. However, although exotics can have potentially great ecological and evolutionary consequences, very few researchers have studied the effect of exotics on the interactions between plants and their mutualistic partners, such as pollinators, and none have reported on such impacts in logged and undisturbed boreal forest ecosystems. Here we show how experimental introductions of an exotic plant species (Phacelia tanacetifolia Bentham) affect pollinator visitation and female reproductive success of a native plant (Melampyrum pratense L.) in recently disturbed (i.e., logged) and in undisturbed boreal forest habitats. The presence of Phacelia significantly increased the number of bumble bees entering plots in both habitat types. However, the exotic species had a strong negative impact on the visitation rate to the native species in both habitat types. Despite this negative impact on pollinator visitation, the exotic had no effect on female reproductive success of the native species in any habitat. Our results show that seed production may be more robust than pollinator visitation to exotic invasion, irrespective of habitat disturbance history.

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