Choosing to listen to self-identified sad music after experiencing negative psychological circumstances seems paradoxical given the commonly-held view that people are motivated to seek a positive affective state when distressed. We examined the motivations people described to listen to music they identified as sad, particularly when experiencing negative circumstances, and the self-reported effects of this activity. We asked adults to respond to an online survey and analyzed their narrative reports using a modified grounded theory approach. Responses were received from 65 adults across five countries. The process that underlies choosing to listen to sad music as well as the self-regulatory strategies and functions of sad music were identified. The music-selection strategies included: connection; selecting music based on memory triggers; high aesthetic value; and message communicated. The functions of these strategies were in the domains of (re-)experiencing affect, cognitive, social, retrieving memories, friend, distraction, and mood enhancement. We additionally modelled the underlying psychological process that guides sad music listening behaviour and the effects of listening. These findings present core insights into the dynamics and value of choosing to listen to self-identified sad music when coping with negative psychological circumstances.

Adults' (N = 220) reported motivations for listening to sad music after experiencing adverse negative circumstances were examined by exploring how their music selection strategies related to (a) their self-regulatory goals, and (b) reported effects of listening. The effects of music selection strategies, self-regulatory goals, and reported effects on the achievement of mood enhancement were also explored using a retrospective survey design. The findings indicate that music choice is linked to the individual's identified self-regulatory goals for music listening and to expected effects. Additionally, the results show that if individuals had intended to achieve mood enhancement through music listening, this was often achieved by first experiencing cognitive reappraisal or distraction. The selection of music with perceived high aesthetic value was the only music selection strategy that directly predicted mood enhancement. Where respondents indicated that they chose music with the intention of triggering memories, this was negatively related to the self-regulatory goal of mood enhancement.

Even though music is widely used as a source of solace, the question as to how and why music offers consolation remains largely unexplored. The aims of the present study are as follows: (a) to compare listening to music versus other self-soothing behaviors, (b) to explore when music is used as a means for solace, (c) to identify aspects of music that are important for providing solace, and (d) to explore behavior while listening to consoling music. Participants completed an internet survey distributed through the websites of Dutch National Radio 2 and Radio 4 (N = 445). The survey consisted of the Geneva Emotion and Music Scale (GEMS), the solace-scale from the Music in Mood Regulation questionnaire (MMR), questions concerning means of solace, situations requiring comfort, song aspects, and feelings and activities during music listening. The main findings indicate that: (1) music is the most important source of consolation compared with other soothing behaviors, (2) situations in which people have experienced loss and sadness are the primary situations in which music offers solace, (3) consoling music induces a feeling of being moved and a mixture of both positive and sad emotions; the most important aspects of a song for soothing purposes are the music itself and the lyrics, and (4) music for comfort is listened to predominately in solitude, as the sole activity. On the basis of these findings, a characterization of listening to consoling music is compiled. Behavior and song aspects are discussed in terms of how and why they are helpful in providing solace.

Self-identified sad music (SISM) is often listened to when experiencing sad life situations. Research indicates that the most common reason people give for listening to SISM is "to be in touch with or express feelings of sadness". But why might this be the case? We suggest that one reason people choose to listen to sad music when feeling sad is to accept aversive situations. We tested if SISM is associated with acceptance coping and consolation. We hypothesized that SISM relates to acceptance-based coping via the recognition and identification of emotional states, and that people will report more acceptance from SISM than selfidentified happy music when seeking consolation. In Study 1, participants recalled how happy or sad the music sounds that they normally listen to for consolation, and if they listen to this music to gain acceptance of negative moods and situations. In Study 2, participants reported their goals when listening to sad music during a recalled time in which they experienced an adverse life situation and whether this lead to acceptance. Study 1: People reported that they were more likely to listen to sad music than happy music when seeking consolation, though they preferred happy music in general. Listening to SISM (but not self-identified happy music) when seeking consolation was associated with acceptance of both a negative situation and the associated negative emotions. Additionally, seeking to deal with emotions was associated with both SISM listening (for consolation) and acceptance. Study 2: Listening to SISM to get in touch with and express affect was the most important self-regulatory strategy (of six examined) through which acceptance was recalled to be achieved. Experiencing adverse situations or seeking consolation, people report that listening to SISM is associated with acceptance coping (through the re-experiencing of affect). Implications for music therapy and theories of emotional coping are discussed.

Sadness is the most common emotion attributed to music after happiness. A recent surge in research has explored why sad music is so popular. This work aimed to summarise the results of these studies. It is indicated that sad music is listened to more commonly in sad mood and negative situation. Many different motivations have been found with regards to listening to sad music such as validating emotions, providing solace, providing rewarding emotional experiences, and aiding reflection and relaxation. With regards to listening sad music being an adaptive way to cope, some evidence in this review indicates that this may be more so the case for psychologically healthy people (rather than depressed or anxious individuals) who are also more like to apply healthy coping strategies. In contrast, findings indicate that depressed individuals and ruminators use sad music both adaptively and maladaptive. Sad music also might be particularly helpful when people are experiencing negative life events, as it enables the expression, identification, and understanding of the situation that can aid to consolation and acceptance coping. Future directions for research and the potential application of sad music listening to therapeutic settings are discussed.