Increasing problems with antibiotic resistance has directed interest towards phages as tools to treat bacterial infections in the aquaculture industry. However, phage resistance evolves rapidly in bacteria posing a challenge for successful phage therapy. To investigate phage resistance in the fish pathogenic bacterium Flavobacterium columnare, two phage-sensitive, virulent wild-type isolates, FCO-F2 and FCO-F9, were exposed to phages and subsequently analyzed for bacterial viability and colony morphology. Twenty-four phage-exposed isolates were further characterized for phage resistance, antibiotic susceptibility, motility, adhesion and biofilm formation on polystyrene surface, protease activity, whole genome sequencing and virulence against rainbow trout fry. Bacterial viability first decreased in the exposure cultures, subsequently increasing after 1-2 days. Simultaneously, the colony morphology of the phage-exposed isolates changed from original rhizoid to rough. The rough isolates arising in phage exposure were phage-resistant with low virulence, whereas rhizoid isolates maintained phage sensitivity, though reduced, and high virulence. Gliding motility and protease activity were also related to the phage sensitivity. Observed genetic mutations in phage-resistant isolates were mostly located in genes coding for type IX secretion system, a component of the flavobacterial gliding motility machinery. However, there were mutational differences between individual isolates, and not all phage-resistant isolates had genetic mutations. This indicates that development of phage resistance in F. columnare probably is a multifactorial process including both genetic mutations and changes in gene expression. Phage resistance may not, however, be a challenge for development of phage therapy against F. columnare infections, since phage resistance is associated with decrease in bacterial virulence.ImportancePhage resistance of infectious bacteria is a common phenomenon posing challenges for development of phage therapy. Along with growing World population and need for increased food production, constantly intensifying animal farming has to face increasing problems of infectious diseases. Columnaris disease, caused by F. columnare, is a worldwide threat for salmonid fry and juvenile farming. Without antibiotic treatments, infections can lead to 100% mortality in a fish stock. Phage therapy of columnaris disease would reduce a development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic loads by the aquaculture industry, but phage-resistant bacterial isolates may become a risk. However, phenotypic and genetic characterization of phage-resistant F. columnare isolates in this study revealed that they are less virulent than phage-sensitive isolates and thus not a challenge for phage therapy against columnaris disease. This is a valuable information for the fish farming industry globally when considering phage-based prevention and curing methods for F. columnare infections.

Intensive aquaculture conditions expose fish to bacterial infections, leading to significant financial losses, extensive antibiotic use and risk of antibiotic resistance in target bacteria. Flavobacterium columnare causes columnaris disease in aquaculture worldwide. To develop a bacteriophage-based control of columnaris disease, we isolated and characterized 126 F. columnare strains and 63 phages against F. columnare from Finland and Sweden in 2017. Bacterial isolates were virulent on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and fell into four previously described genetic groups A, C, E and G, with genetic groups C and E being the most virulent. Phage host range studied against a collection of 227 bacterial isolates (from 2013 to 2017) demonstrated modular infection patterns based on host genetic group. Phages infected contemporary and previously isolated bacterial hosts, but bacteria isolated most recently were generally resistant to previously isolated phages. Despite large differences in geographical origin, isolation year or host range of the phages, whole-genome sequencing of 56 phages showed high level of genetic similarity to previously isolated F. columnare phages (Ficleduovirus, Myoviridae). Altogether, this phage collection demonstrates a potential for use in phage therapy.

Viruses of bacteria, bacteriophages, specifically infect their bacterial hosts with minimal effects on the surrounding microbiota. They have the potential to be used in the prevention and treatment of bacterial infections, including in the field of food production. In aquaculture settings, disease-causing bacteria are often transmitted through the water body, providing several applications for phage-based targeting of pathogens, in the rearing environment, and in the fish. We tested delivery of phages by different methods (via baths, in phage-coated material, and via oral delivery in feed) to prevent and treat Flavobacterium columnare infections in rainbow trout fry using three phages (FCOV-S1, FCOV-F2, and FCL-2) and their hosts (FCO-S1, FCO-F2, and B185, respectively). Bath treatments given before bacterial infection and at the onset of the disease symptoms were the most efficient way to prevent F. columnare infections in rainbow trout, possibly due to the external nature of the disease. In a flow-through system, the presence of phage-coated plastic sheets delayed the onset of the disease. The oral administration of phages first increased disease progression, although total mortality was lower at the end of the experiment. When analysed for shelf-life, phage titers remained highest when maintained in bacterial culture media and in sterile lake water. Our results show that successful phage therapy treatment in the aquaculture setting requires optimisation of phage delivery methods in vivo.

Intensive aquaculture conditions expose fish to bacterial infections, leading to significant financial losses, extensive antibiotic use and risk of antibiotic resistance in target bacteria. Flavobacterium columnare causes columnaris disease in aquaculture worldwide. To develop a bacteriophage-based control of columnaris disease, we isolated and characterized 126 F. columnare strains and 63 phages against F. columnare from Finland and Sweden. Bacterial isolates were virulent on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and fell into four previously described genetic groups A, C, E and G, with genetic groups C and E being the most virulent. Phage host range studied against a collection of 228 bacterial isolates demonstrated modular infection patterns based on host genetic group. Phages infected contemporary and previously isolated bacterial hosts, but bacteria isolated most recently were generally resistant to previously isolated phages. Despite large differences in geographical origin, isolation year or host range of the phages, whole genome sequencing of 56 phages showed high level of genetic similarity to previously isolated F. columnare phages (Ficleduovirus, Myoviridae). Altogether, this phage collection demonstrates a potential to be used in phage therapy.

The microbial community surrounding fish eyed eggs can harbor pathogenic bacteria. In this study we focused on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) eyed eggs and the potential of bacteriophages against the pathogenic bacteria Flavobacterium psychrophilum and F. columnare. An infection bath method was first established, and the effects of singular phages on fish eggs was assessed (survival of eyed eggs, interaction of phages with eyed eggs). Subsequently, bacteria-challenged eyed eggs were exposed to phages to evaluate their effects in controlling the bacterial population. Culture-based methods were used to enumerate the number of bacteria and/or phages associated with eyed eggs and in the surrounding environment. The results of the study showed that, with our infection model, it was possible to re-isolate F. psychrophilum associated with eyed eggs after the infection procedure, without affecting the survival of the eggs in the short term. However, this was not possible for F. columnare, as this bacterium grows at higher temperatures than the ones recommended for incubation of rainbow trout eyed eggs. Bacteriophages do not appear to negatively affect the survival of rainbow trout eyed eggs and they do not seem to strongly adhere to the surface of eyed eggs either. Finally, the results demonstrated a strong potential for short term (24 h) phage control of F. psychrophilum. However, further studies are needed to explore if phage control can be maintained for a longer period and to further elucidate the mechanisms of interactions between Flavobacteria and their phages in association with fish eggs.