Tropical cities are more susceptible to the suggested fall outs from projected global warming scenarios as they are located in the Torrid Zone and growing at rapid rates. Therefore, research on the mitigation of urban heat island (UHI) effects in tropical cities has attained much significance and increased immensely over recent years. The UHI mitigation strategies commonly used for temperate cities need to be examined in the tropical context since the mechanism of attaining a surface energy balance in the tropics is quite different from that in the mid-latitudes. The present paper evaluates the performance of four different mitigation strategies to counterbalance the impact of UHI phenomena for climate resilient adaptation in the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA), India. This has been achieved by reproducing the study sites, selected from three different urban morphologies of open low-rise, compact low-rise and mid-rise residential areas, using ENVI-met V 4.0 and simulating the effects of different mitigation strategies-cool pavement, cool roof, added urban vegetation and cool city (a combination of the three former strategies), in reducing the UHI intensity. Simulation results show that at a diurnal scale during summer, the green city model performed best at neighborhood level to reduce air temperature (Ta) by 0.7 °C, 0.8 °C and 1.1 °C, whereas the cool city model was the most effective strategy to reduce physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) by 2.8°-3.1 °C, 2.2°-2.8 °C and 2.8°-2.9 °C in the mid-rise, compact low-rise and open low-rise residential areas, respectively. It was observed that (for all the built environment types) vegetation played the most significant role in determining surface energy balance in the study area, compared to cool roofs and cool pavements. This study also finds that irrespective of building environments, tropical cities are less sensitive to the selected strategies of UHI mitigation than their temperate counter parts, which can be attributed to the difference in magnitude of urbanness.

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Recent decades have witnessed an increased occurrence of natural disasters, including floods associated with extreme precipitation (EP) in cities (IPCC AR6, 2022). Making cities safe, resilient, and sustainable is one of United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030 (SDG2030, especially Goal 11; United Nations, 2015). Achieving this goal is a challenge because cities are exposed to changing large-scale climatic feedbacks, and cities themselves are creating their microclimate. Such multiscale climatic forcing is causing non-stationarity in the climate system, which results in an increasing trend of unprecedented extreme weather and climate events that might occur in the future (Diffenbaugh et al., 2017;Fischer et al., 2021). As a result, urban areas that are designed based on historical hydroclimate conditions continue to be exposed to higher risk due to climate impacts, especially urban floods (Mishra et al., 2022;Ye & Niyogi, 2022). Indeed, it is recognized that for some regions, precipitation extremes will become more frequent, more widespread, and/or more intense during the 21st century, and cities will be disproportionately at higher risk (Meyer et al., 2020).A basis of framing the precipitation change due to climate warming is through the classical Clausius-Clapeyron (CC) relation (Fowler, Lenderink, et al., 2021;Lenderink & van Meijgaard, 2009). The CC equation defines the saturation specific humidity of the atmosphere as a function of temperature. Hence, specific humidity near the Earth's surface is anticipated to rise at a rate of approximately 7% per degree warming (K −1 ). Several past studies have shown that both short-(<1 day) and long-duration (>1 day) precipitation extremes intensify at a rate consistent with the increase in atmospheric moisture (∼7% K −1 ; Allan & Soden, 2008). In some regions,