CXCR4 and CXCR7 are the two receptors for the chemokine CXCL12, a key mediator of the growth effect of estrogens (E2) in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancers. In this study we examined E2-regulation of the CXCL12 axis components and their involvement in the growth of breast cancer cells. CXCR4 and CXCR7 were differentially regulated by E2 which enhanced the expression of both CXCL12 and CXCR4 but repressed the expression of CXCR7. Formaldehyde-associated isolation of regulatory elements (FAIRE) revealed that E2-mediated transcriptional regulation of these genes is linked to the control of the compaction state of chromatin at their promoters. This effect could be accomplished via several distal ER-binding sites in the regions surrounding these genes, all of which are located 20–250 kb from the transcription start site. Furthermore, individual down-regulation of CXCL12, CXCR4 or CXCR7 expression as well as the inhibition of their activity significantly decreases the rate of basal cell growth. In contrast, E2-induced cell growth was differentially affected. Unlike CXCR7, the inhibition of the expression or activity of either CXCL12 or CXCR4 significantly blunted the E2-mediated stimulation of cellular growth. Besides, CXCR7 over-expression increased the basal MCF-7 cell growth rate and decreased the growth effect of E2. These findings indicate that E2 regulation of the CXCL12 signaling axis is important for the E2-mediated growth effect of breast cancer cells. These data also provide support for distinct biological functions of CXCR4 and CXCR7 and suggest that targeting CXCR4 and/or CXCR7 would have distinct molecular effects on ER-positive breast tumors.

Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) is generally considered to be a good prognostic marker because almost 70% of ERα-positive tumors respond to anti-hormone therapies. Unfortunately, during cancer progression, mammary tumors can escape from estrogen control, resulting in resistance to treatment. In this study, we demonstrate that activation of the actin/megakaryoblastic leukemia 1 (MKL1) signaling pathway promotes the hormonal escape of estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cell lines. The actin/MKL1 signaling pathway is silenced in differentiated ERα-positive breast cancer MCF-7 and T47D cell lines and active in ERα-negative HMT-3522 T4-2 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, which have undergone epithelial-mesenchymal transition. We showed that MKL1 activation in MCF-7 cells, either by modulating actin dynamics or using MKL1 mutants, down-regulates ERα expression and abolishes E2-dependent cell growth. Interestingly, the constitutively active form of MKL1 represses PR and HER2 expression in these cells and increases the expression of HB-EGF, TGFβ, and amphiregulin growth factors in an E2-independent manner. The resulting expression profile (ER-, PR-, HER2-) typically corresponds to the triple-negative breast cancer expression profile.

Activation of the Met receptor tyrosine kinase, either by its ligand, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), or via ligand-independent mechanisms, such as MET amplification or receptor overexpression, has been implicated in driving tumor proliferation, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. Clinical development of Met-targeted antibodies has been challenging, however, as bivalent antibodies exhibit agonistic properties, whereas monovalent antibodies lack potency and the capacity to down-regulate Met. Through computational modeling, we found that the potency of a monovalent antibody targeting Met could be dramatically improved by introducing a second binding site that recognizes an unrelated, highly expressed antigen on the tumor cell surface. Guided by this prediction, we engineered MM-131, a bispecific antibody that is monovalent for both Met and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM). MM-131 is a purely antagonistic antibody that blocks ligand-dependent and ligand-independent Met signaling by inhibiting HGF binding to Met and inducing receptor down-regulation. Together, these mechanisms lead to inhibition of proliferation in Met-driven cancer cells, inhibition of HGF-mediated cancer cell migration, and inhibition of tumor growth in HGF-dependent and -independent mouse xenograft models. Consistent with its design, MM-131 is more potent in EpCAM-high cells than in EpCAM-low cells, and its potency decreases when EpCAM levels are reduced by RNAi. Evaluation of Met, EpCAM, and HGF levels in human tumor samples reveals that EpCAM is expressed at high levels in a wide range of Met-positive tumor types, suggesting a broad opportunity for clinical development of MM-131.