Abstract:According to Bandura (1977Bandura ( , 1981Bandura ( , 1982, psychological procedures change behavior in part by creating and strengthening perceived self-efficacy, which refers to judgments of one's performance capabilities in a given domain of activity. Self-efficacy can influence choice of activities, effort expended, persistence, and task accomplishments. Efficacy information is conveyed through actual performances, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion, and physiological indexes (e.g., heart rate). Article:Modeling is hypothesized to be an important source of information about one's level of efficacy. People can learn new skills from observing others (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978;Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978), and the belief that one has acquired skills can raise self-efficacy (Schunk, 1984). Modeling also is a form of social comparison. Individuals who observe others perform a task are apt to believe that they can as well (Bandura, 1981), because modeling implicitly conveys to observers that they possess the necessary capabilities to succeed (Schunk, 1984). This sense of efficacy is substantiated later as observers successfully perform the task.Despite these ideas, little research exists on how modeling affects children's self-efficacy. Zimmerman and Ringle (1981) exposed children to an adult model who unsuccessfully attempted to solve a wire puzzle problem for either a high (5 min) or low (30 s) time period and who verbalized either statements of confidence or pessimism. Children judged their self-efficacy for solving the puzzle before and after the modeling. Compared with children's self-efficacy prior to modeling, children who observed a pessimistic model persist for 5 min significantly lowered their self-efficacy judgments. Schunk (1981) provided children deficient in division skills with either cognitive modeling of division operations or didactic instruction, along with practice opportunities, over sessions. During cognitive modeling, children observed an adult model verbalize operations while solving problems, whereas didactic children studied explanatory material on their own. Children who received cognitive modeling solved more division problems correctly on the posttest, although both treatments enhanced selfefficacy equally well.The models in both of these studies were adults. It is possible that modeling would have exerted greater effects on children's self-efficacy had children observed peer models. There is evidence that similarity to models in personal attributes (e.g., sex, age) and in perceived competence (skill, ability) can increase the likelihood of observational learning (Bandura, 1971(Bandura, , 1981Perry & Furukawa, 1980). People are apt to experience higher self-efficacy for performing a task well when they observe similar others succeed at the task (Bandura, 1981;Brown & Inouye, 1978;Schunk, 1984). These considerations suggest that an adult teacher flawlessly demonstrating cognitive skill operations may not promote high self-efficacy in children; in particu...

Abstract:In two experiments, we investigated how attributed of peer models influenced achievement behaviors among children who had experienced difficulties learning mathematical skills in school. In Experiment 1, children (M = 10.6 years) observed either a same-or opposite-sex peer model demonstrating rapid (mastery model) or gradual (coping model) acquisition of fraction skills. Observing a coping model led to higher self-efficacy, skill, and training performance. In Experiment 2, children (M = 10.9 years) observed either one or three same-sex peer models demonstrating mastery or coping behaviors while solving fractions. Children in the single-coping model, multiple-coping-model, and multiple-mastery-model conditions demonstrated higher self-efficacy, skill, and training performance, compared with subjects who observed a single mastery model. In both studies, children who observed coping models judged themselves more similar in competence to the models than did subjects who observed mastery models. Article:Perceived self-efficacy, or personal beliefs about one's capabilities to organize and implement actions necessary for attaining designated levels of performance, is hypothesized to be an important mechanism mediating behavior change (Bandura, 1982(Bandura, , 1986. Self-efficacy can affect one's choice of activities, effort expenditure, persistence, and achievement. Individuals acquire information about their self-efficacy through their actual performances, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion (e.g., -You can do this‖), and physiological indexes (sweating and heart rate).Modeled performances constitute an important source of information about one's self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Individuals who observe similar others performing a task are apt to believe that they also can perform the task because modeling implicitly conveys to observers that they possess the necessary capabilities for succeeding (Berger, 1977). This sense of efficacy is substantiated later when observers succeed at the task (Schunk, 1985). Observers' self-efficacy judgments depend in part on perceptions of similarity in competence to the model and on the outcome (e.g., success or failure) of the model's actions (Brown & Inouye, 1978 ;Zimmerman & Ringle, 1981).The preceding considerations suggest that although adults can serve as powerful models for transmitting behaviors to children, behaviors that are constrained by ability may be more susceptible to peer influence (Davidson & Smith, 1982). Schoolchildren learn skills by observing their adult teachers, but observation of peer models may better enhance children's self-efficacy. In particular, an adult teacher's flawlessly modeling cognitive skills may not promote high self-efficacy in children who have encountered previous difficulties with the subject matter and who are likely to view the teacher as superior in competence. Models of the same age and sex as children and whom children view as similar in competence may teach children skills and promote their self-efficacy f...

Article: Bandura (1982Bandura ( , 1986 contended that psychological procedures change behavior in part by creating and strengthening perceived self-efficacy, or personal beliefs about one's performance capabilities in a given domain. Self-efficacy influences choice of activities, effort expended, persistence, and task accomplishments. Individuals acquire information about their self-efficacy through their actual performances, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion, and physiological indexes (e.g., heart rate, sweating).Observation of models is an important vicarious source of efficacy information. The effect on observers depends in part on perceived similarity to models (Schunk, 1987). Festinger (1954) hypothesized that, where objective standards of behavior are unclear or unavailable, observers evaluate themselves through social comparisons with others. The most accurate self-evaluations derive from comparisons with those similar in the ability or characteristic being evaluated. Observing similar others succeed raises observers' self-efficacy and motivates them to try the task. Model attributes (e.g., age, perceived competence) often are predictive of performance capabilities (Bandura, 1986). Similarity is especially influential when individuals are uncertain about their capabilities, as when they lack task familiarity and have little information on which to base efficacy judgments or when they have experienced difficulties and possess doubts about performing well.Given that ability-related behaviors are highly susceptible to peer influence (Davidson & Smith, 1982), an adult's flawlessly modeled demonstration may not promote self-efficacy in students who have experienced learning difficulties and who view the teacher as superior in competence. Peer models who students believe are similar in competence to themselves may better promote students' self-efficacy for learning. Schunk and Hanson (1985) found that children who observed a peer model learn to solve subtraction problems developed higher self-efficacy for learning than did children who observed an adult model the same operations.Model-observer attribute similarity is heightened when one is one's own model (Bandura, 1986). Self-modeling refers to behavioral change that derives from observing oneself on videotapes that portray only desired (target) behaviors (Dowrick, 1983;Hosford, 1981). In a typical experiment, subjects are videotaped individually as they perform behaviors, after which they view their own tapes. Tapes can capture existing behaviors by having subjects role play or perform previously learned skills or can portray behaviors created with editing (deleting errors) and illusory techniques (using camera angles that obscure aid from others). Self-modeling has been used to train physical, vocational, communication, teaching, and social-personal skills (Carroll & Bandura, 1982;Davis, 1979;Dowrick & Dove, 1980;Dowrick & Hood, 1981;Dowrick & Raeburn, 1977;Fuller & Manning, 1973;Hosford & Mills, 1983;Miklich, Chida, & Danker-Brown, ...

Schunk, Hanson, and Cox (1987) investigated the effects of peer-model attributes on children's self-efficacy (i.e., perceived capabilities) and skill. Children enrolled in below-grade-level classes for mathematics instruction observed either one or three same-sex peers demonstrating rapid (mastery model) or gradual (coping model) acquisition of fraction skills, after which they received instruction. Observing a single coping model, multiple coping models, or multiple mastery models led to higher self-efficacy for learning, more rapid problem-solving during the instructional sessions, and higher posttest self-efficacy and skill than did observing a single mastery model. Children who observed coping models (single or multiple) judged themselves similar in competence to the models; children who observed mastery-models judged themselves less competent than the models. Article:Observing peers acquiring skills can instill the belief in children that they are capable of learning, which enhances task motivation and skill development (Schunk, 1985). Perceiving one's self to be similar in competence to models is an important means of gaining information about one's self-efficacy for learning (Bandura, 1986). Children who typically experience learning difficulties would be expected to perceive coping models' gradual learning as more similar to their own performances than the rapid learning of mastery models. Such children also may readily discount the successes of a single model. Although multiple models can increase the probability that observers will perceive themselves as similar to at least one model (Thelen, Fry, Fehrenbach, & Frautschi, 1979), Schunk et al. (1987) found that number of models did not affect similarity judgments.In the present study, we used the Schunk et al. (1987) methodology with children enrolled in on-grade-level classes for mathematics instruction. We did not expect benefits of coping models with this sample. Therapeutic advantages of coping models have typically been obtained in research studies involving fearful subjects in threatening situations fraught with failures (Kornhaber & Schroeder, 1975;Meichenbaum, 1971). We felt that average achievers would perceive themselves similar in competence to mastery models. It even seemed possible that observing coping models could convey to subjects that the task was difficult, which would result in low efficacy for learning (Schunk, 1985). We also did not believe that these subjects would discount the successes of a single model, so diversified modeling was not expected to enhance achievement behaviors.The coping models used by Schunk et al. (1987) initially made errors and verbalized negative emotive statements reflecting low self-efficacy and ability, high task difficulty, and negative attitudes, after which they verbalized and demonstrated coping behaviors stressing concentration and hard work. Eventually they verbalized positive emotive statements and solved problems skillfully like mastery models. Modeled coping techniques generally raise self-effi...

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