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This study presents estimates of the magnitude of carbon leakage as a consequence of emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol using gravity modelstyle regression analysis on data from the WIOD project. The carbon trade balance between 2002 and 2009 was reduced by 705 megatons of carbon dioxide due to Kyoto and carbon leakage amounts to slightly above 4% of traded carbon dioxide emissions. We highlight four previously neglected issues: First, we control for multilateral trade resistance in the estimation of a unilateral policy by using a two-stage procedure. Second, we control explicitly for the effect of Eastern European countries on leakage estimates. We show that this country group strongly affects the baseline estimates in the framework introduced by Aichele and Felbermayr (Rev Econ Stat 97(1):104-115, 2015). Third, we introduce an alternative specification of the Kyoto variable. Fourth, this is the first study to present econometric evidence for the magnitude of carbon leakage from services sectors. While service elasticities are estimated to be sizable, strong leakage is limited to transport sectors as well as renting of machinery. The manufacturing sectors of metals, machinery and transport equipment are responsible for three quarters of observed leakage.

Abstract. Polypropylene (PP) composites are used in a wide range of structural applications. Except for fiber reinforced PP, most PP particle composites are commonly considered to be isotropic or at least quasi-isotropic. In this paper, however, the anisotropy of several PP composites containing soft (rubber) and hard (talc) particles and glass fibers is characterized in detail in terms of the material microstructure as well as the resulting mechanical properties in monotonic tensile and compressive experiments. The microstructural investigations showed that all composites displayed a certain surface-core layer structure of distinctly different orientation patterns and with a higher degree of orientation in the surface layer. Also in mechanical testing an anisotropic behavior was observed with the degree of anisotropy being more pronounced in tension than compression. Moreover, the compression/tension asymmetry also strongly depends on filler type and orientation.

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