Mutations in the leucine‐rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are associated with Parkinson's disease, chronic inflammation and mycobacterial infections. Although there is evidence supporting the idea that LRRK2 has an immune function, the cellular function of this kinase is still largely unknown. By using genetic, pharmacological and proteomics approaches, we show that LRRK2 kinase activity negatively regulates phagosome maturation via the recruitment of the Class III phosphatidylinositol‐3 kinase complex and Rubicon to the phagosome in macrophages. Moreover, inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity in mouse and human macrophages enhanced Mycobacterium tuberculosis phagosome maturation and mycobacterial control independently of autophagy. In vivo, LRRK2 deficiency in mice resulted in a significant decrease in M. tuberculosis burdens early during the infection. Collectively, our findings provide a molecular mechanism explaining genetic evidence linking LRRK2 to mycobacterial diseases and establish an LRRK2‐dependent cellular pathway that controls M. tuberculosis replication by regulating phagosome maturation.

BackgroundPhthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIM), glycolipids found on the outer surface of virulent members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) complex, are a major contributing factor to the pathogenesis of Mtb. Myelocytic cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, are the primary hosts for Mtb after infection and previous studies have shown multiple roles for PDIM in supporting Mtb in these cells. However, Mtb can infect other cell types. We previously showed that Mtb efficiently replicates in human lymphatic endothelial cells (hLECs) and that the hLEC cytosol acts as a reservoir for Mtb in humans. Here, we examined the role of PDIM in Mtb translocation to the cytosol in hLECs.ResultsAnalysis of a Mtb mutant unable to produce PDIM showed less co-localisation of bacteria with the membrane damage marker Galectin-8 (Gal8), indicating that PDIM strongly contribute to phagosomal membrane damage. Lack of this Mtb lipid also leads to a reduction in the proportion of Mtb co-localising with markers of macroautophagic removal of intracellular bacteria (xenophagy) such as ubiquitin, p62 and NDP52. hLEC imaging with transmission electron microscopy shows that Mtb mutants lacking PDIM are much less frequently localised in the cytosol, leading to a lower intracellular burden.ConclusionsPDIM is needed for the disruption of the phagosome membrane in hLEC, helping Mtb avoid the hydrolytic phagolysosomal milieu. It facilitates the translocation of Mtb into the cytosol, and the decreased intracellular burden of Mtb lacking PDIM indicates that the cytosol is the preferred replicative niche for Mtb in these cells. We hypothesise that pharmacological targeting of PDIM synthesis in Mtb would reduce the formation of a lymphatic reservoir of Mtb in humans.

Stromal fibroblast recruitment to tumours and activation to a cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) phenotype has been implicated in promoting primary tumour growth and progression to metastatic disease. However, the mechanisms underlying the tumour:fibroblast crosstalk that drive the intertumoural stromal heterogeneity remain poorly understood. Using in vivo models we identify Wnt7a as a key factor secreted exclusively by aggressive breast tumour cells, which induces CAF conversion. Functionally, this results in extracellular matrix remodelling to create a permissive environment for tumour cell invasion and promotion of distant metastasis. Mechanistically, Wnt7a-mediated fibroblast activation is not dependent on classical Wnt signalling. Instead, we demonstrate that Wnt7a potentiates TGFβ receptor signalling both in 3D in vitro and in vivo models, thus highlighting the interaction between two of the key signalling pathways in development and disease. Importantly, in clinical breast cancer cohorts, tumour cell Wnt7a expression correlates with a desmoplastic, poor-prognosis stroma and poor patient outcome.

To interrogate the complex mechanisms involved in the later stages of cancer metastasis, we designed a functional in vivo RNA interference (RNAi) screen combined with next-generation sequencing. Using this approach, we identifi ed the sialyltransferase ST6GalNAc2 as a novel breast cancer metastasis suppressor. Mechanistically, ST6GalNAc2 silencing alters the profi le of O -glycans on the tumor cell surface, facilitating binding of the soluble lectin galectin-3. This then enhances tumor cell retention and emboli formation at metastatic sites leading to increased metastatic burden, events that can be completely blocked by galectin-3 inhibition. Critically, elevated ST6GALNAC2 , but not galectin-3, expression in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancers signifi cantly correlates with reduced frequency of metastatic events and improved survival. These data demonstrate that the prometastatic role of galectin-3 is regulated by its ability to bind to the tumor cell surface and highlight the potential of monitoring ST6GalNAc2 expression to stratify patients with breast cancer for treatment with galectin-3 inhibitors. SIGNIFICANCE:RNAi screens have the potential to uncover novel mechanisms in metastasis but do not necessarily identify clinically relevant therapeutic targets. Our demonstration that the sialyltransferase ST6GalNAc2 acts as a metastasis suppressor by impairing binding of galectin-3 to the tumor cell surface offers the opportunity to identify patients with breast cancer suitable for treatment with clinically well-tolerated galectin-3 inhibitors. Cancer Discov; 4(3);