Antidepressants targeting Na+/Cl−-coupled neurotransmitter uptake define a major therapeutic strategy to treat clinical depression and neuropathic pain. However, identifying the molecular interactions that underlie the pharmacological activity of these transport inhibitors and thus the mechanism by which the inhibitors lead to increased synaptic neurotransmitter levels has proven elusive. Here we present the crystal structure of the Drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter (dDAT) at 3.0 Å resolution bound to the tricyclic antidepressant nortriptyline. The transporter is locked in an outward-open conformation with nortriptyline wedged between TMs1/6 and 3/8, blocking the transporter from binding substrate and from isomerizing to an inward facing conformation. While the overall structure of dDAT is similar to that of its prokaryotic relative LeuT, there are multiple distinctions that include a kink in TM12 halfway across the membrane bilayer, a latch-like C-terminal helix that caps the cytoplasmic gate, and a cholesterol molecule wedged within a groove formed by TMs 1a, 5 and 7. Taken together, the dDAT structure reveals the molecular basis for antidepressant action on sodium-coupled neurotransmitter symporters and illuminates critical elements of eukaryotic transporter structure and modulation by lipids, thus expanding our understanding of mechanism and regulation of neurotransmitter uptake at chemical synapses.

Na+/Cl−-coupled biogenic amine transporters are the primary targets of therapeutic and abused drugs, ranging from antidepressants to the psychostimulants cocaine and amphetamines, and to their cognate substrates. Here we determine x-ray crystal structures of the Drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter (dDAT) bound to its substrate dopamine (DA), a substrate analogue 3,4-dichlorophenethylamine, the psychostimulants D-amphetamine, methamphetamine, or to cocaine and cocaine analogues. All ligands bind to the central binding site, located approximately halfway across the membrane bilayer, in close proximity to bound sodium and chloride ions. The central binding site recognizes three chemically distinct classes of ligands via conformational changes that accommodate varying sizes and shapes, thus illustrating molecular principles that distinguish substrates from inhibitors in biogenic amine transporters.

Summary• Acclimation of hyperaccumulators to heavy metal-induced stress is crucial for phytoremediation and was investigated using the hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens and the nonaccumulators T. fendleri and T. ochroleucum .• Spatially and spectrally resolved kinetics of in vivo absorbance and fluorescence were measured with a novel fluorescence kinetic microscope.• At the beginning of growth on cadmium (Cd), all species suffered from toxicity, but T. caerulescens subsequently recovered completely. During stress, a few mesophyll cells in T. caerulescens became more inhibited and accumulated more Cd than the majority; this heterogeneity disappeared during acclimation. Chlorophyll fluorescence parameters related to photochemistry were more strongly affected by Cd stress than nonphotochemical parameters, and only photochemistry showed acclimation.• Cd acclimation in T. caerulescens shows that part of its Cd tolerance is inducible and involves transient physiological heterogeneity as an emergency defence mechanism. Differential effects of Cd stress on photochemical vs nonphotochemical parameters indicate that Cd inhibits the photosynthetic light reactions more than the Calvin-Benson cycle. Differential spectral distribution of Cd effects on photochemical vs nonphotochemical quenching shows that Cd inhibits at least two different targets in/around photosystem II (PSII). Spectrally homogeneous maximal PSII efficiency ( F v / F m ) suggests that in healthy T. caerulescens all chlorophylls fluorescing at room temperature are PSII-associated.Key words: acclimation, cadmium (Cd), heterogeneity, imaging and spectral measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence kinetics, metal sequestration, photosynthetic performance. as q CN = ( F m -F m ′ )/ F m = 'complete nonphotochemical quenching of Chl fluorescence' (i.e. with normalisation to F m ); OD, optical density; PSII, photosystem II; RC, photosynthetic reaction centre; Φ PSII = Φ e = ( F m ′ − F t ′ )/ F m ′ = effective quantum yield of photochemical energy conversion in actinic light (Genty et al. , 1989). Here, the values of this parameter were calculated also for responses to saturating flashes during the relaxation period after the end of actinic light in order to follow the return of the system to its dark-acclimated state as measured by F v / F m . AbbreviationsNew Phytologist (2007) 175 : [655][656][657][658][659][660][661][662][663][664][665][666][667][668][669][670][671][672][673][674]

Most antidepressants elicit their therapeutic benefits through selective blockade of Na+−Cl− - coupled neurotransmitters transporters. Here we report x-ray structures of the Drosophila melanogaster dopamine transporter in complexes with the polycyclic antidepressants nisoxetine or reboxetine. The inhibitors stabilize the transporter in an outward-open conformation by occupying the substrate binding site. These structures explain how interactions between the binding pocket and substituents on the aromatic rings of antidepressants modulate drug – transporter selectivity.