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IntroductionPrevention is the ideal strategy to tackle the problem of pressure ulcers. Pressure ulcer risk assessment scales are one of the most pivotal measures applied to tackle the problem, much criticisms has been developed regarding the validity and reliability of these scales.ObjectiveTo investigate the validity and reliability of the Waterlow pressure ulcer risk assessment scale.MethodThe methodology used is a narrative literature review, the bibliography was reviewed through Cinahl, Pubmed, EBSCO, Medline and Google scholar, 26 scientific articles where identified. The articles where chosen due to their direct correlation with the objective under study and their scientific relevance.ResultsThe construct and face validity of the Waterlow appears adequate, but with regards to content validity changes in the category age and gender can be beneficial. The concurrent validity cannot be assessed. The predictive validity of the Waterlow is characterized by high specificity and low sensitivity. The inter-rater reliability has been demonstrated to be inadequate, this may be due to lack of clear definitions within the categories and differentiating level of knowledge between the users.ConclusionDue to the limitations presented regarding the validity and reliability of the Waterlow pressure ulcer risk assessment scale, the scale should be used in conjunction with clinical assessment to provide optimum results.

Smoking is a form of medical addiction, usually adopted during adolescence. The aim was to determine the prevalence of smoking in adolescents, aged 13-18 years old, to investigate their attitudes towards smoking and determine the contribution of social influences to onset and continuation of smoking. An anonymous self-report questionnaire was filled in by 873 high school students of Central Greece. Smoking incidence was 19.2%, with a 13.7% of regular smokers. The presence of a smoker in the family and a smoker friend were correlated with increased smoking rates. School grades were correlated negatively with smoking attitude and positively with allowance. Age was correlated negatively with social influence. Social influence appears stronger on younger ages and is a main determinant of smoking behavior. A more susceptible attitude towards smoking is formed during late adolescence. Certain social predictive factors for attitude towards smoking are proposed.

Background: Parental and peer smoking are considered major predictors of smoking in adolescence. We investigate the impact of family and social environment and parental anti-smoking socialization on the intensive and extensive margins of smoking for Greek adolescents. Method and Material: Information on 873 adolescents was collected through a self-reported survey and regression analysis examined associations with five different smoking outcomes (current/lifetime smoking status/intensity and onset). Subgroup analyses and interactions provided further insights. Results: Prevalence of adolescent smoking is high. Family and peer smoking habits and smoking restrictions at home reduce probability and intensity of smoking. Parental smoking increases probability of current smoking by 5%