One of the most complex and least tackled problems in the study of social organizations is that of organizational effectiveness. Many difficulties in this area arise with attempts to define the concept of effectiveness adequately. Same of these stem from the closeness with which this concept becomes associated with the question of values (e.g., "management" versus "labor" orientations). Other problems arise vihen researchers choose a priori criteria of effectiveness which seem intuitively right, without trying systematically to place them within a consistent and broader framework. In effect, specific criteria which might be proper in one case may be entirely inappropriate to other organizations. In this respect, the question arises as to whether it is possible to develop a definition of effectiveness and to derive criteria which are both applicable across organizations and can be meaningfully placed within a general conceptual framework. The present paper deals with one attempt in this direction. The Concept and Related Issues The concept of organizational effectiveness (sometimes called organizational "success" or organizational "worth") is ordinarily used to refer to goal-attainment-to "how well" an organization is doing, or to its relative "overall success" and to the adequacy with which it operates * The author wishes to thank Dr. Arnold S. Tannenbaum for his assistance and collaboration in parts of the present study.

This analysis focuses upon the control aspects of organizations. Organizations are characterized as orderly arrangements of individual human interactions, in which control is an essential ingredient. A major assumption is that the total amount of control or influence in an organization is not a constant, fixed amount but that it may vary. Increasing the influence of one group (e.g., the workers) in an organization does not necessarily imply decreasing that of others (e.g., supervisors and managers). Some evidence is presented to suggest that increased control exercised by all levels of the organization hierarchy is associated with increased organizational effectiveness. A relatively high level of total control may reflect increased participation and mutual influence throughout the organization and a greater degree of integration of all members. This is likely to result in the enhancement of ego-involvement, identification, motivation, and job satisfaction of members. Some of the psychological costs of increased control and responsibility on the part of workers and management are noted.

No abstract

This article reports a study of the activities and performance of institutional review boards to protect human research subjects. Researchers and institutional review board members were generally supportive of the review system, although substantial criticisms were also heard. Institutional review boards had some direct impact on half of the proposals reviewed by requiring either modification of or additional information about proposed research. The data, however, raise questions about the effectiveness of some review board actions, for example, with regard to informed consent. Some policy implications of the study are presented.

A probability sample of the relatively autonomous local Leagues within the League of Women Voters of the United States was used to test two hypotheses concerning the causes and effects of varying patterns of control in organizations. Both are stated in terms of dimensions of the descriptive technique known as the "control graph." The hypotheses state that the effectiveness of the local League will vary directly with the average positive slope and the height of the local League's control curves. The data at least partially support the hypotheses.