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Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are produced by all domains of life. In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. Nonetheless, EVs have been described in a variety of cell-walled organisms, including Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Cryptococcus neoformans. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes, and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In this Review, we describe the current status of vesiculogenesis research in thick-walled microorganisms and discuss the cargo and functions associated with EVs in these species.

15 ps −1 and a bath temperature of 298 K were used to propagate the equations of motion within the Langevin approach. Periodic boundary conditions were applied to simulate a continuous medium." should instead appear as "A friction coefficient of 10 ps −1 and a bath temperature of 298 K were used to propagate the equations of motion within the Langevin approach. No boundary conditions were imposed; the system freely evolved in vacuum."These errors do not affect the conclusions of the article.