Background Graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) often lead laboratory and tutorial sections in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), especially at large, research-intensive universities. GTAs’ performance as instructors can impact student learning experience as well as learning outcomes. In this study, we observed 11 chemistry GTAs and 11 physics GTAs in a research-intensive institution in the southeastern USA. We observed the GTAs over two consecutive semesters in one academic year, resulting in a total of 58 chemistry lab observations and 72 physics combined tutorial and lab observations. We used a classroom observation protocol adapted from the Laboratory Observation Protocol for Undergraduate STEM (LOPUS) to document both GTA and student behaviors. We applied cluster analysis separately to the chemistry lab observations and to the physics combined tutorial and lab observations. The goals of this study are to classify and characterize GTAs’ instructional styles in reformed introductory laboratories and tutorials, to explore the relationship between GTA instructional style and student behavior, and to explore the relationship between GTA instructional style and the nature of laboratory activity. Results We identified three instructional styles among chemistry GTAs and three different instructional styles among physics GTAs. The characteristics of GTA instructional styles we identified in our samples are different from those previously identified in a study of a traditional general chemistry laboratory. In contrast to the findings in the same prior study, we found a relationship between GTAs’ instructional styles and student behaviors: when GTAs use more interactive instructional styles, students appear to be more engaged. In addition, our results suggest that the nature of laboratory activities may influence GTAs’ use of instructional styles and student behaviors. Furthermore, we found that new GTAs appear to behave more interactively than experienced GTAs. Conclusion GTAs use a variety of instructional styles when teaching in the reformed laboratories and tutorials. Also, compared to traditional laboratory and tutorial sections, reformed sections appear to allow for more interaction between the nature of lab activities, GTA instructional styles, and student behaviors. This implies that high-quality teaching in reformed laboratories and tutorials may improve student learning experiences substantially, which could then lead to increased learning outcomes. Therefore, effective GTA professional development is particularly critical in reformed instructional environments.

We investigated student perceptions of cold calling on their feelings of anxiousness and how graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) alleviated these feelings when students shared their ideas publicly in the context of tutorial and laboratory sessions. Physics and chemistry GTAs who led active-learning tutorials and labs practiced cold calling paired with error framing with avatar-students in a mixed-reality simulator at the beginning of the semester. Then, we observed the GTAs teaching real students in their actual classroom. We recruited eleven students from sections led by GTAs who were observed to use cold calling in their classroom to participate in semi-structured interviews. Several students reported that cold calling increased their feelings of anxiousness. However, students also reported that GTAs used strategies paired with cold calling that reduced their feelings of anxiousness, such as acknowledging student responses as valuable and remembering student names. We discuss implications for professional development on active learning strategies.

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Background In college science laboratory and discussion sections, student-centered active learning strategies have been implemented to improve student learning outcomes and experiences. Research has shown that active learning activities can increase student anxiety if students fear that they could be negatively evaluated by their peers. Error framing (i.e., to frame errors as natural and beneficial to learning) is proposed in the literature as a pedagogical tool to reduce student anxiety. However, little research empirically explores how an instructor can operationalize error framing and how error framing is perceived by undergraduate students. To bridge the gap in the literature, we conducted a two-stage study that involved science graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) and undergraduate students. In stage one, we introduced cold calling (i.e., calling on non-volunteering students) and error framing to 12 chemistry and 11 physics GTAs. Cold calling can increase student participation but may increase student anxiety. Error framing has the potential to mitigate student anxiety when paired with cold calling. GTAs were then tasked to rehearse cold calling paired with error framing in a mixed-reality classroom simulator. We identified GTA statements that aligned with the definition of error framing. In stage two, we selected a few example GTA error framing statements and interviewed 13 undergraduate students about their perception of those statements. Results In the simulator, all the GTAs rehearsed cold calling multiple times while only a few GTAs made error framing statements. A thematic analysis of GTAs’ error framing statements identified ways of error indication (i.e., explicit and implicit) and framing (i.e., natural, beneficial, and positive acknowledgement). Undergraduate student interviews revealed specific framing and tone that are perceived as increasing or decreasing student comfort in participating in classroom discourse. Both undergraduate students and some GTAs expressed negative opinions toward responses that explicitly indicate student mistakes. Undergraduate students’ perspectives also suggest that error framing should be implemented differently depending on whether errors have already occurred. Conclusion Error framing is challenging for science GTAs to implement. GTAs’ operationalizations of error framing in the simulator and undergraduate students’ perceptions contribute to defining and operationalizing error framing for instructional practice. To increase undergraduate student comfort in science classroom discourse, GTAs can use implicit error indication. In response to students’ incorrect answers, GTAs can positively frame students’ specific ideas rather than discussing broadly how errors are natural or beneficial.