Since the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, Muslim wilayets (provinces) disintegrated and many were colonialized by the Allied powers comprising the Europeans, Soviet Union and the United States. Post-World War II, however, most of the Muslim wilayets started to achieve their independence and have become part of the modern state system. Muslim states were no longer paying their allegiance to the one single center of leadership as it was during the Islamic Caliphate era. The establishment of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in 1969 could not replace the Caliphate institution for it had no ultimate political power over Muslim countries. Every Muslim country now has their own religious practices. Undeniably, in managing religious affairs they have to deal with a lot of challenges. One of the challenges is the spread of deviant teachings which if no stern action is taken it may threaten the unity of the Muslim community. Meanwhile, Muslim countries have different policies and approaches in tackling the spread of deviant teachings. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to compare Malaysia and Turkey policies in dealing with the deviant teachings within their Muslim community, respectively. The comparative analysis will be revolved around the definition of deviant teachings, government policies and their implications in containing the spread of the deviant teachings in both countries.

Religious affiliation is the most vital element in which Malaysia and Saudi Arabia have shared commonalities in their bilateral relations. It is understandably comprehended also that in terms of the character of the relations, Malaysia seems to tend to interact more with the Kingdom, and not vice versa, in order to fulfill its multi-variety of domestic and international necessities. Malaysia has to face various issues that are closely related to the culture of the Islamic development in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In some points these may influence the degree of the relations, particularly to the Islamic traditions of the former. However, based on this study, the expansion of Wahabi Doctrine was limited due to the dominance of the Shafiite School, Malaysia's religious 'guarded' policies, the trend of the Islamic da'wah movement in Malaysia.Furthermore, the approach of Saudi in spreading the Wahabi doctrine was also slow and more efforts were done to strengthen its image and influence among Muslim countries by distributing its wealth to other needy Muslim countries. This will consolidate its position among other stronger Muslim countries.

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During the COVID-19 era, most countries, including Malaysia, have shifted from face-to-face teaching systems to online teaching programs. The aim of this study is to identify the main challenges that higher education students face during e-learning based on their residential location throughout Peninsular Malaysia. This study further examines the readiness of higher education students to apply e-learning. Therefore, a cross-sectional survey approach is used to fulfil the outlined objectives. Accordingly, 761 public (95.3%) and private (4.7%) higher education students residing in Peninsular Malaysia are sampled in this study. The survey was administered online for 37 days, from 21 October 21 to 6 December 2021, using either WhatsApp or Facebook. The raw data is inferentially (Principal Component Analysis, K-Means Clustering, Kruskal Wallis, and spatial analysis) and descriptively (mean, standard deviation & percentage) analyzed. It has been revealed that six clusters of students in Peninsular Malaysia face various challenges while following the e-learning program. Most states in Peninsular Malaysia are dominated by students in Cluster D (Terengganu, Perlis, Penang, Selangor, WP Kuala Lumpur, and WP Putrajaya) and Cluster B categories (Melaka, Johor, Kelantan, and Kedah). Students in the Cluster D category tend to suffer from physical health disorders and social isolation, while students in the Cluster B category face problems with decreased focus in learning, mental health disorders, and social isolation. The outcomes further indicate that the more challenges students face during e-learning programs, the lower their willingness to continue with the program. The results of this study are significant in addressing the challenges of e-learning, which will help stakeholders address and strengthen student abilities.