There is a diverse array of influenza viruses which circulate between different species, reassort and drift over time. Current seasonal influenza vaccines are ineffective in controlling these viruses. We have developed a novel universal vaccine which elicits robust T cell responses and protection against diverse influenza viruses in mouse and human models. Vaccine mediated protection was dependent on influenza-specific CD4 T cells, whereby depletion of CD4 T cells at either vaccination or challenge time points significantly reduced survival in mice. Vaccine memory CD4 T cells were needed for early antibody production and CD8 T cell recall responses. Furthermore, influenza-specific CD4 T cells from vaccination manifested primarily Tfh and Th1 profiles with anti-viral cytokine production. The vaccine boosted H5-specific T cells from human PBMCs, specifically CD4 and CD8 T effector memory type, ensuring the vaccine was truly universal for its future application. These findings have implications for the development and optimization of T cell activating vaccines for universal immunity against influenza.

Background Problem-based learning (PBL) is a common instructional method in undergraduate health professions training. Group interactions with and within PBL curricula may influence learning outcomes, yet few studies have synthesized the existing evidence. This scoping review summarized the literature examining the influence of group function on individual student PBL outcomes. Following Kirkpatrick’s framework, experiential, academic, and behavioral outcomes were considered. The impacts of three aspects of group function were explored: (1) Group Composition (identities and diversity), (2) Group Processes (conduct and climate, motivation and confidence, and facilitation), and (3) PBL Processes (tutorial activities). Methods A literature search was conducted using Medline, CINAHL, and APA PsychInfo from 1980–2021, with the help of a librarian. English-language empirical studies and reviews that related group function to learning outcome, as defined, in undergraduate health professions PBL curricula were included. Relevant references from included articles were also added if eligibility criteria were met. The methods, results, discussions, and limitations of the sample were summarized narratively. Results The final sample (n = 48) varied greatly in context, design, and results. Most studies examined junior medical students (n = 32), used questionnaires for data collection (n = 29), and reported immediate cross-sectional outcomes (n = 34). Group Processes was the most frequently examined aspect of group function (n = 29), followed by Group Composition (n = 26) and PBL Processes (n = 12). The relationships between group function and outcomes were not consistent across studies. PBL experiences were generally highly rated, but favorable student experiences were not reliable indicators of better academic or behavioral outcomes. Conversely, problematic group behaviors were not predictors of poorer grades. Common confounders of outcome measurements included exam pressure and self-study. Conclusions The main findings of the review suggested that (1) group function is more predictive of experiential than academic or behavioral PBL outcomes, and (2) different Kirkpatrick levels of outcomes are not highly correlated to each other. More research is needed to understand the complexity of group function in PBL tutorials under variable study contexts and better inform curricular training and design. Standardized tools for measuring PBL group function may be required for more conclusive findings.

In adults, dairy consumption improves short-term blood glucose regulation. It is unknown if these short-term benefits extend to children of different weight statuses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a dairy and nondairy snack in both normal-weight (NW) and overweight/obese (OW/OB) children on blood glucose regulation and food intake (FI). In a repeated-measures crossover design, 11 NW and 7 OW/OB children (age: 9–14 years), consumed, in random order, a dairy (Greek yogurt, 198.9 g, 171 kcal, 0 g fat, 17 g protein) or nondairy (mini sandwich-type cookies, 37.5 g, 175 kcal, 7.5 g fat, 1.3 g protein) snack containing 25 g of available carbohydrates. Ad libitum FI was measured 120 min after snack consumption. Blood glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) were measured at 0 min (before the snack), and at 30, 60, 90, and 120 min after snack consumption. Insulin secretion was calculated from deconvolution of C-peptide. Hepatic insulin extraction was calculated as C-peptide divided by insulin. FI did not differ between snacks (P = 0.55). Mean blood glucose was lower (P < 0.001) and insulin higher (P < 0.0001) in the 120 min after consuming the dairy snack. C-Peptide concentrations (P = 0.75) and insulin secretion (P = 0.37) were not different between snacks. The increase in insulin was explained by reduced hepatic insulin extraction (P < 0.01). Consumption of the dairy snack also increased mean GLP-1 concentrations (P < 0.001). In conclusion, consumption of a dairy snack by NW and OW/OB children results in reduced postprandial blood glucose concentrations and elevated circulating insulin compared with a nondairy snack possibly because of delayed hepatic insulin extraction.

The increase in the frequency of snacking and the types of snacks consumed among children may contribute to metabolic disorders including obesity and diabetes. The objective of this study was to explore the short‐term effects of dairy and non‐dairy snacks on subjective satiety and food intake in children. Methods: In a repeated‐measures design, 23 normal weight (5th‐85th BMI percentile) children (16 girls and 7 boys; aged 9‐14 y) were randomly assigned to one of five isocaloric (180 kcal) treatments including solid foods: deep fried potato chips (32g), mini sandwich type cookies (39g), and mozzarella cheese (63g), semi‐solid: Greek yogurt (200g), and fluid: milk (2% milk fat, 346g). Following a 12hr overnight fast, participants consumed a standardized breakfast two hours prior to each study session. Subjective appetite was measured with visual analogue scale questionnaires before and at 15, 30, 45, 90, 120 and 145 min after the treatment. Food intake was measured with an ad libitum pizza meal provided at 120 min. Results: Food intake was 82 kcal lower after the cheese treatment compared to the milk treatment (P<0.05) while the other treatments led to the intermediate results. There was an effect of time (P<0.0001), but no treatment or time‐by‐treatment effect on subjective average appetite. Conclusion: A solid dairy snack (cheese) is effective in reducing food intake in children. Grant Funding Source: Dairy Farmers of Canada