Phylogenetic relationships of the World genera of dobsonflies, subfamily Corydalinae, are reappraised, as well as those of species of the New World genus Corydalus, both on the basis of morphological characters. Previous phylogenetic hypotheses of dobsonfly genera by Glorioso, Penny, and Contreras-Ramos, respectively, are re-evaluated, and a fourth revised phylogeny is presented. Ninety-five characters of 10 taxa, one outgroup and nine ingroup taxa, were used in the updated analysis of Corydalinae. It recognizes four lineages, with Chloroniella as sister to the other three, of which the Nevromus lineage (Acanthacorydalis + Nevromus + Neoneuromus) is sister to the Corydalus lineage (Chloronia + Platyneuromus + Corydalus), and both as a group are sister to the Protohermes lineage (Protohermes + Neurhermes). The main changes in the updated Corydalinae phylogeny are the placement of Chloroniella as sister to all other dobsonfly genera, and the placement of Acanthacorydalis as a member of the Nevromus lineage. Previously, Penny had proposed Chloroniella as sister to all dobsonfly genera except the Protohermes lineage, and both Glorioso and Penny, respectively, placed Acanthacorydalis as sister to the Corydalus lineage. About Corydalus, its species phylogeny is herein updated, as four species from Venezuela were added to the genus after its taxonomic revision. For the new phylogeny, 120 characters of 35 taxa, two outgroup and 33 ingroup taxa, were used. It produced a strict consensus of two trees, better resolved than the previous one. The C. arpi species group is moved to sister of all other species except the C. cephalotes species pair, while the C. batesii species group is conserved, being the only unresolved group within the phylogeny. Two of the species added, C. hayashii and C. mayri, belong to the well defined C. arpi species group, of Guayana Shield affinity, whereas C. crossi is sister to a large and widespread group beginning with the C. nubilus species group, and C. clavijoi is sister to C. tesselatus within the latter group.

Adult external morphology of the extant raptorial Mantispoidea (Insecta: Neuroptera: Mantispidae and Rhachiberothidae) is compared emphasizing the morphology of the subfamily Symphrasinae as a key group to understand the phylogenetic relationships among the members of the superfamily. Plega dactylota Rehn, 1939 is thoroughly characterized in order to exemplify the morphology of the Symphrasinae. Additionally, following a review of the literature and examination of comparative material of Dilaridae, Berothidae, Rhachiberothidae and all Mantispidae subfamilies, a new interpretation of the components of the raptorial apparatus (i.e., head, prothorax, grasping forelegs, as well as integumentary specializations) is presented. Also, wing venation for these groups is reinterpreted, and new homology hypotheses for wing venation are proposed based on tracheation and comparative analyses. Given the high morphological divergence on the genital sclerites within the Mantispoidea, plus the confusing previous usage of neutral terminology and terms referring to appendages across taxonomic and morphological studies, we attempt to standardize, simplify, and situate terminology in an evolutionary context under the “gonocoxite concept” (multi-coxopod hypothesis). The remarkable morphological similarity of the genital sclerites of Symphrasinae and Rhachiberothidae (sensu U. Aspöck & Mansell 1994) with the Nallachinae (Dilaridae) was taken as a starting point to understand the morphology of other Mantispidae subfamilies. Based on these morphological comparisons, we provide a revised phylogenetic analysis of Mantispoidea. This new phylogenetic analysis supports a sister group relationship between the family Rhachiberothidae, comprising Rhachiberothinae and Symphrasinae, and the family Mantispidae, including the subfamily Mantispinae and its sister taxa Drepanicinae and Calomantispinae, which may represent a single subfamily. Based on these analyses, raptorial condition probably evolved a single time in these insects and subsequently became diversified in the two sister clades of the raptorial Mantispoidea.

BackgroundThe last time the phylogenetic relationships among members of the family Hemerobiidae were studied quantitatively was over 12 years ago and based exclusively on morphology. Our study builds upon this morphological evidence by adding sequence data from three gene loci to provide a total evidence phylogeny of brown lacewings (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae). Thirty-seven species representing nineteen Hemerobiidae genera were compared with outgroups from the families Ithonidae, Psychopsidae and Chrysopidae in Bayesian and parsimony analyses using a single nuclear gene (CAD) and two mitochondrial (16S rDNA and Cytochrome Oxidase I) genes. We compare divergence time estimates of Hemerobiidae cladogenesis under the two most commonly used relaxed clock models and discuss the evolution of wing venation in the family.ResultsWe recovered a phylogeny largely incongruent with previously published morphological studies, although all but two subfamilies (i.e., Notiobiellinae and Drepanacrinae) were recovered as monophyletic. We found the subfamily Drepanacrinae paraphyletic with respect to Psychobiellinae, and Notiobiellinae to be polyphyletic. We thus offer a revised concept of Notiobiellinae, comprising only Notiobiella Banks, and erect a new subfamily Zachobiellinae including the remaining genera previously placed in Notiobiellinae. Psychobiellinae is synonymized with Drepanacrinae. Unlike the previous hypothesis that proposed a remarkably laddered topology, our tree suggests that hemerobiids diverged as three main clades. Moreover, in contrast to the vein proliferation hypothesis, we found that hemerobiids have instead undergone multiple reductions in the number of radial veins, this scenario questions the relevance of this character as diagnostic of various subfamiliesConclusionsOur phylogenetic hypothesis and divergence times analysis suggest that extant hemerobiids originated around the end of the Triassic and evolved as three distinct clades that diverged from one another during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Contrary to earlier phylogenetic hypotheses, Carobius Banks (Carobiinae) is sister to the previously unplaced genus Notherobius New in a clade more closely related to Sympherobiinae, Megalominae and Zachobiellinae subfam. nov. The addition of taxa which are not available for DNA sequencing should be the focus of future studies, especially Adelphohemerobius Oswald, which is particularly important to test our inferences regarding the evolution of wing venation in Hemerobiidae.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0746-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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