No abstract

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has long been connected to the development of tissue lesion following ischemic stroke. Contradictory findings either situate VEGF as a promoter of large infarct volumes or as a potential attenuator of damage due to its well documented neuroprotective capability. The core of this discrepancy mostly lies on the substantial number of pleiotropic functions driven by VEGF. Mechanistically, these effects are activated through several VEGF receptors for which various closely related ligands exist. Here, we tested in an experimental model of stroke how the differential activation of VEGF receptors 1 and 2 would modify functional and histological outcomes in the acute phase post-ischemia. We also assessed whether VEGF-mediated responses would involve the modulation of inflammatory mechanisms and how this trophic factor acted specifically on neuronal receptors. We produced ischemic infarcts in adult rats by transiently occluding the middle cerebral artery and induced the pharmacological inhibition of VEGF receptors by i.c.v. administration of the specific VEGFR2 inhibitor SU1498 and the pan-VEGFR blocker Axitinib. We evaluated the neurological performance of animals at 24 h following stroke and the occurrence of brain infarctions analyzed at the gross metabolic and neuronal viability levels. We also assessed the induction of peripheral pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the cerebrospinal fluid and blood and assessed the polarization of activated microglia. Finally, we studied the direct involvement of cortical neuronal receptors for VEGF with in vitro assays of excitotoxic damage. Preferential VEGFR1 activation by the endogenous ligand promotes neuronal protection and prevents the presentation of large volume infarcts that highly correlate with neurological performance, while the concomitant activation of VEGFR2 reduces this effect, even in the presence of exogenous ligand. This process partially involves the polarization of microglia to the state M2. At the cellular level, neurons also responded better to the preferential activation of VEGFR1 when challenged to N -methyl- D -aspartate-induced excitotoxicity. Endogenous activation of VEGFR2 hinders the neuroprotective mechanisms mediated by the activation of VEGFR1. The selective modulation of these concurrent processes might enable the development of therapeutic approaches that target specific VEGFR1-mediated signaling during the acute phase post-stroke.

Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) of the subventricular zone proliferate in response to ischemic stroke in the adult mouse brain. Newly generated cells have been considered to influence recovery following a stroke. However, the mechanism underlying such protection is a matter of active study since it has been thought that proliferating NPCs mediate their protective effects by secreting soluble factors that promote recovery rather than neuronal replacement in the ischemic penumbra. We tested the hypothesis that this mechanism is mediated by the secretion of multimolecular complexes in extracellular vesicles (EVs). We found that the molecular influence of oxygen and glucose-deprived (OGD) NPCs-derived EVs is very limited in improving overt neurological alterations caused by stroke compared to our recently reported astrocyte-derived EVs. However, when we inhibited the ischemia-triggered proliferation of NPCs with the chronic administration of the DNA synthesis inhibitor Ara-C, the effect of NPC-derived EVs became evident, suggesting that the endogenous protection exerted by the proliferation of NPC is mainly carried out through a mechanism that involves the intercellular communication mediated by EVs. We analyzed the proteomic content of NPC-derived EVs cargo with label-free relative abundance mass spectrometry and identified several molecular mediators of neuronal recovery within these vesicles. Our findings indicate that NPC-derived EVs are protective against the ischemic cascade activated by stroke and, thus, hold significant therapeutic potential.

Spontaneous recovery after a stroke accounts for a major part of the neurological recovery in patients. However limited, the spontaneous recovery is mechanistically driven by axonal restorative processes for which several molecular cues have been previously described. We report the acceleration of spontaneous recovery in a preclinical model of ischemia/reperfusion in rats via a single intracerebroventricular administration of extracellular vesicles released from primary cortical astrocytes. We used MRI, confocal and multiphoton microscopy to correlate the structural remodeling of the corpus callosum and striatocortical circuits with neurological performance over 21 days. We also evaluated the functionality of the corpus callosum by repetitive recordings of compound action potentials to show that the recovery facilitated by astrocytic extracellular vesicles was both anatomical and functional. Our data provide compelling evidence that astrocytes can hasten the basal recovery that naturally occurs post-stroke through the release of cellular mediators contained in extracellular vesicles.

Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) of the subventricular zone proliferate in response to ischemic stroke in the adult mouse brain. Newly generated cells have been considered to influence recovery following a stroke. However, the mechanism underlying such protection is a matter of active study since it has been thought that proliferating NPCs mediate their protective effects by secreting soluble factors that promote recovery rather than neuronal replacement in the ischemic penumbra. We tested the hypothesis that this mechanism is mediated by the secretion of multimolecular complexes in extracellular vesicles (EVs). We found that the molecular influence of oxygen and glucose-deprived (OGD) NPCs-derived EVs is very limited in improving overt neurological alterations caused by stroke compared to our recently reported astrocyte-derived EVs. However, when we inhibited the ischemia-triggered proliferation of NPCs with the chronic administration of the DNA synthesis inhibitor Ara-C, the effect of NPC-derived exosomes became evident, suggesting that the endogenous protection exerted by the proliferation of NPC is mainly carried out through a mechanism that involves the intercellular communication mediated by EVs. We analyzed the proteomic content of NPC-derived EVs cargo with label-free relative abundance mass spectrometry and identified several molecular mediators of neuronal recovery within these vesicles. Our findings indicate that NPC-derived EVs are protective against the ischemic cascade activated by stroke and, thus, hold significant therapeutic potential.