Findings suggest that decreased RSA during video viewing and speaking is associated with increased stuttering and young CWS differ from CWNS in terms of how their executive functions moderate the relation between RSA change and stuttered disfluencies.

We conducted four experiments on egocentric depth perception using blind walking with a restricted scanning method in both the real and a virtual environment. Our viewing condition in all experiments was monocular. We varied the field of view (real), scan direction (real), blind walking method (real and virtual), and selfrepresentation (virtual) over distances of 4 meters to 7 meters. The field of view varied between 21.1 • and 13.6 • . The scan direction varied between near-to-far scanning and far-to-near scanning. The blind walking method varied between direct blind walking and an indirect method of blind walking that matched the geometry of our laboratory. We varied self-representation between having a selfavatar (a fully tracked, animated, and first-person perspective of the user), having a static avatar (a mannequin avatar that did not move), to having no avatar (a disembodied camera view of the virtual environment). In the real environment, we find an effect of field of view; participants performed more accurately with larger field of view. In both real and virtual environments, we find an effect of blind walking method; participants performed more accurately in direct blind walking. We do not find an effect of distance underestimation in any environment, nor do we find an effect of self-representation.

Negative emotion plays a detrimental role on the speech-motor control processes of children who persist, whereas children who eventually recover seem to exhibit a relatively more stable and mature speech-motor system. This suggests that complex interactions between speech-motor and emotional processes are at play in stuttering recovery and persistency; and articulation rates following negative emotion or during stuttered versus fluent speech might be considered as potential factors to prospectively predict persistence and recovery from stuttering.

The current study had 2 goals: to examine and compare baseline singing accuracy of 3 age-groups of participants (children ages 5–8 years, children ages 9–12, and adults) when performing a familiar song from memory, and to examine all participants’ use of auditory and proprio-kinesthetic feedback in regulating pitch by masking their ability to hear themselves. Pitch accuracy, error variability, and tonal stability were examined. All participants were asked to sing “The Alphabet Song” from memory in 2 conditions: normal auditory feedback and masked auditory feedback. Under both feedback conditions, there was significant improvement between the youngest children (ages 5–8) and the adults on all 3 measures, but not between the older children (ages 9–12) and the adults. Participants in every age-group performed more poorly in terms of interval accuracy and error variability when they could not hear themselves. In terms of tonal stability, however, we found an age by feedback interaction such that auditory masking negatively affected key stability for children ages 9 to 12, but not the younger children or the adults. This suggests that although older children may rely heavily on auditory feedback to control relative pitch accuracy and tonal center, adults and younger children may show a different pattern of feedback monitoring for interval-based singing accuracy and maintaining a consistent tonal center.

Singing is a universal form of music expression. However, the extent of skill in carrying a tune and maintaining correct timing varies across people. Differences have been reported between professional singers and non-singers; however, whether singing accuracy depends on specialized vocal training or more general types of music training has not been investigated before. In this study, singers, instrumentalists, and nonmusicians sang Happy Birthday under conditions where they could or could not hear themselves singing. The main purpose of the study was to determine the influence of vocal versus instrumental training on pitch and timing accuracy when singing with and without auditory feedback. The results for pitch and tempo showed that singers depended on auditory feedback less than nonmusicians and instrumentalists alike, and were better able to use kinesthetic feedback in the absence of auditory feedback. Instrumentalists have had considerable ear and instrumental practice with feedback, but this did not transfer to pitch control when singing without auditory feedback, suggesting the ability to use kinesthesia for singing is enhanced through the kinds of practice/training singers receive. Rhythmic stability across all conditions and groups suggested that rhythmic calculations do not depend on music training or on use of auditory feedback.