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IntroductionThe problem of traffic congestion and associated externalities has become a major focus of transport policy in many developed countries in recent years. In the United Kingdom legislation has been progressed to enable local authorities to implement one of two schemes: road user charging (RUC) or workplace parking levies (WPLs). RUC policies would allow local authorities to charge road users for travelling on specified routes. WPLs would allow nonretail organisations to be charged for their provision of private nonresidential parking. Both policies are aimed at reducing congestion, particularly in peak commuting periods.A principal concern regarding these policies is their impact on the economic vitality of the urban economy. This study provides the results of a survey examining the attitudes of private sector firms in three historic UK cities (Cambridge, Norwich, and York) to the possible effects of RUC and WPL schemes, how the firms may respond to the implementation of these policies, and the likely consequent impacts on the urban economies. The survey formed part of a large interdisciplinary study, funded by the EPSRC Sustainable Cities Programme, to investigate the possible consequences of introducing traffic-demand-management policies in the three cities, including the effects on traffic flows, environmental impacts, and the attitudes of individuals and businesses. The three historic cities were selected for three reasons. First, the three cities are of similar size with a broadly similar urban economic structure. Second, the historical nature of the three cities means that a significant proportion of the street layouts predate motorised transport, creating acute traffic problems of high levels of congestion and difficulties in maintaining urban environmental quality. The acuteness of their

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