BackgroundCancer detection using sniffer dogs is a potential technology for clinical use and research. Our study sought to determine whether dogs could be trained to discriminate the odour of urine from men with prostate cancer from controls, using rigorous testing procedures and well-defined samples from a major research hospital.MethodsWe attempted to train ten dogs by initially rewarding them for finding and indicating individual prostate cancer urine samples (Stage 1). If dogs were successful in Stage 1, we then attempted to train them to discriminate prostate cancer samples from controls (Stage 2). The number of samples used to train each dog varied depending on their individual progress. Overall, 50 unique prostate cancer and 67 controls were collected and used during training. Dogs that passed Stage 2 were tested for their ability to discriminate 15 (Test 1) or 16 (Tests 2 and 3) unfamiliar prostate cancer samples from 45 (Test 1) or 48 (Tests 2 and 3) unfamiliar controls under double-blind conditions.ResultsThree dogs reached training Stage 2 and two of these learnt to discriminate potentially familiar prostate cancer samples from controls. However, during double-blind tests using new samples the two dogs did not indicate prostate cancer samples more frequently than expected by chance (Dog A sensitivity 0.13, specificity 0.71, Dog B sensitivity 0.25, specificity 0.75). The other dogs did not progress past Stage 1 as they did not have optimal temperaments for the sensitive odour discrimination training.ConclusionsAlthough two dogs appeared to have learnt to select prostate cancer samples during training, they did not generalise on a prostate cancer odour during robust double-blind tests involving new samples. Our study illustrates that these rigorous tests are vital to avoid drawing misleading conclusions about the abilities of dogs to indicate certain odours. Dogs may memorise the individual odours of large numbers of training samples rather than generalise on a common odour. The results do not exclude the possibility that dogs could be trained to detect prostate cancer. We recommend that canine olfactory memory is carefully considered in all future studies and rigorous double-blind methods used to avoid confounding effects.

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I . Homogenates of pig kidney incubated in vitro convert 2~-hydroxycholecalciferol to the dihydroxy-2. The cortex of the kidney carries out this conversion more efficiently than does the medulla. 3. Kidneys from pigs given low calcium or low phosphorus diets produce about 40 %more 1~5-dihydroxymetabolites almost as efficiently as homogenates of chick kidney under similar conditions. cholecalciferol than those from pigs given diets containing normal levels of Ca and P.

Twenty-four young pigs were divided into three groups and each fed a replete, low calcium (Ca) or low phosphorus (P) diet. It was found that the deficient diets induced rises in renal 25 hydroxy-vitamin D 1,hydroxylase (1-hydroxylase) activity, circulating 1,25 dihydroxy-vitamin D3 (1,25 (OH)2-D3) and Ca binding protein (CaBP) and intestinal 1,25(OH)2D3 and CaBP. All these rises were statistically significant in the low Ca group but only the rises in the 1-hydroxylase activity and intestinal 1,25(OH)2D3 were significant in the low P group. A high degree of correlation existed between the parameters. There was no enhancement of intestinal 1,25(OH)2D3 or CaBP concentration relative to the 1-hydroxylase activity in the low P pigs as occurs in the chick. The low-P-induced rise in 1-hydroxylase activity was independent of parathyroid hormone.