In vivo functional investigation of oncogenes using somatic gene transfer has been successfully exploited to validate their role in tumorigenesis. For tumour suppressor genes this has proven more challenging due to technical aspects. To provide a flexible and effective method for investigating somatic loss-of-function alterations and their influence on tumorigenesis, we have established CRISPR/Cas9-mediated somatic gene disruption, allowing for in vivo targeting of TSGs. Here we demonstrate the utility of this approach by deleting single (Ptch1) or multiple genes (Trp53, Pten, Nf1) in the mouse brain, resulting in the development of medulloblastoma and glioblastoma, respectively. Using whole-genome sequencing (WGS) we characterized the medulloblastoma-driving Ptch1 deletions in detail and show that no off-targets were detected in these tumours. This method provides a fast and convenient system for validating the emerging wealth of novel candidate tumour suppressor genes and the generation of faithful animal models of human cancer.

The genetic evolution from a benign neurofibroma to a malignant sarcoma in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) syndrome remains unclear. Schwann cells and/or their precursor cells are believed to be the primary pathogenic cell in neurofibromas because they harbor biallelic neurofibromin 1 (NF1) gene mutations. However, the phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) and neurofibromatosis 1 (Nf1) genes recently were found to be co-mutated in high-grade peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) in mice. In this study, we created transgenic mice that lack both Pten and Nf1 in Schwann cells and Schwann cell precursor cells in order to validate the role of these two genes in PNST formation in vivo. Haploinsufficiency or complete loss of Pten dramatically accelerated neurofibroma development and led to the development of higher-grade PNSTs in the context of Nf1 loss. Pten dosage, together with Nf1 loss, was sufficient for the progression from low-grade to high-grade PNSTs. Genetic analysis of human sporadic malignant pheripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs) also revealed down-regulation of PTEN expression, suggesting that Pten-regulated pathways are major tumor suppressive barriers to neurofibroma progression. Together, our findings establish a novel mouse model that can rapidly recapitulate the onset of human neurofibroma tumorigenesis and the progression to MPNSTs.

We previously utilized a Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon mutagenesis screen to discover novel drivers of HCC. This approach identified recurrent mutations within the Dlk1-Dio3 imprinted domain, indicating that alteration of one or more elements within the domain provides a selective advantage to cells during the process of hepatocarcinogenesis. For the current study, we performed transcriptome and small RNA sequencing to profile gene expression in SB–induced HCCs in an attempt to clarify the genetic element(s) contributing to tumorigenesis. We identified strong induction of Retrotransposon-like 1 (Rtl1) expression as the only consistent alteration detected in all SB–induced tumors with Dlk1-Dio3 integrations, suggesting that Rtl1 activation serves as a driver of HCC. While previous studies have identified correlations between disrupted expression of multiple Dlk1-Dio3 domain members and HCC, we show here that direct modulation of a single domain member, Rtl1, can promote hepatocarcinogenesis in vivo. Overexpression of Rtl1 in the livers of adult mice using a hydrodynamic gene delivery technique resulted in highly penetrant (86%) tumor formation. Additionally, we detected overexpression of RTL1 in 30% of analyzed human HCC samples, indicating the potential relevance of this locus as a therapeutic target for patients. The Rtl1 locus is evolutionarily derived from the domestication of a retrotransposon. In addition to identifying Rtl1 as a novel driver of HCC, our study represents one of the first direct in vivo demonstrations of a role for such a co-opted genetic element in promoting carcinogenesis.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the deadliest solid cancers and represents the third leading cause of cancer-related death. There is a universal HCC male to female estimated ratio of 2.5, but the reason for this is not well understood. The Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon system was used to elucidate candidate oncogenic drivers of HCC in a forward genetics screening approach. Gender bias occurrence was conserved in our model, with male experimental mice developing liver tumors at reduced latency and higher tumor penetrance. In parallel, we explored gender differences regarding genomic aberrations in 235 HCC patients. Liver cancer candidate genes were identified from both genders and genotypes. Interestingly, transposon insertions in the epidermal growth factor receptor (Egfr) gene were common in SB-induced liver tumors from male mice (10/10, 100%) but infrequent in female animals (2/9, 22%). Human SNP data confirmed that polysomy of chromosome 7, locus of EGFR, was more frequent in males (26/62, 41%) than females (2/27, 7%) (P = 0.001). Gene expression based Poly7 subclass patients were predominantly males (9/9) compared with 67% males (55/82) in other HCC subclasses (P = 0.02) and was accompanied by EGFR overexpression (P < 0.001). Gender bias occurrence of HCC associated with EGFR was confirmed in experimental animals using the SB transposon system in a reverse genetic approach. This study provides evidence for the role of EGFR in gender bias occurrences of liver cancer and as the driver mutational gene in the Poly7 molecular subclass of human HCC.