Bee venom (BV) from honey bee (Apis Melifera L.) contains at least 18 pharmacologically active components including melittin (MLT), phospholipase A (PLA), and apamin etc. BV is safe for human treatments dose dependently and proven to possess different healing properties including antibacterial and antiparasitidal properties. Nevertheless, antiviral properties of BV have not well investigated. Hence, we identified the potential antiviral properties of BV and its component against a broad panel of viruses. Co-incubation of non-cytotoxic amounts of BV and MLT, the main component of BV, significantly inhibited the replication of enveloped viruses such as Influenza A virus (PR8), Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), and Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). Additionally, BV and MLT also inhibited the replication of non-enveloped viruses such as Enterovirus-71 (EV-71) and Coxsackie Virus (H3). Such antiviral properties were mainly explained by virucidal mechanism. Moreover, MLT protected mice which were challenged with lethal doses of pathogenic influenza A H1N1 viruses. Therefore, these results provides the evidence that BV and MLT could be a potential source as a promising antiviral agent, especially to develop as a broad spectrum antiviral agent.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become an emerging health issue globally, posing a threat to zoonotic pathogens and foodborne diseases. In Bangladesh, the poultry sector supplies the majority of the demand for animal-source protein. The irrational and excessive use of antimicrobials (AMU) has been observed in the poultry sector. The development of AMR is associated with many factors, including the knowledge and attitudes of poultry farmers. Therefore, AMR reduction requires intervention from all the stockholders, including the farmers who are considered as end users of antimicrobials. This current research conducted a cross-sectional study to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of poultry farmers on AMU and AMR in Bangladesh. We determined the KAP of poultry farmers (broiler and layer farmers) of some selected districts of the country using a tested and paper-based questionnaire. The results demonstrated that most of the respondents have insufficient KAP regarding AMU and AMR. The respondents used a variety of antimicrobials primarily in the treatment of various diseases in poultry. One-third of the farmers did not seek antimicrobials from registered vets. Instead, they depended on others or themselves. The factor score analysis further revealed that the farmers’ demographic and socioeconomic variables were significant factors influencing the KAP. An adjusted logistic regression analysis showed that older farmers with 9–12 years of farming experience and graduate-level education, engaging in medium-sized layer farming, were more likely to have correct KAP on AMU and AMR. Further, farmers from the Cox’s Bazar region showed correct knowledge, whereas farmers of the Chattogram region showed a correct attitude towards AMU and AMR. A Spearman’s rank-order correlation revealed a positive association between knowledge–attitudes and knowledge–practices. The findings of the current investigation provide baseline evidence about the KAP of poultry farmers from low-income resources and offer insights into designing interventions and policies for the use of AMU and AMR in Bangladesh.

Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (WRS) is one of the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (ARSs) that possesses noncanonical functions. Full-length WRS is released during bacterial infection and primes the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) complex to elicit innate immune responses. However, the role of WRS in viral infection remains unknown. Here, we show that full-length WRS is secreted by immune cells in the early phase of viral infection and functions as an antiviral cytokine. Treatment of cells with recombinant WRS protein promotes the production of inflammatory cytokines and type I interferons (IFNs) and curtails virus replication in THP-1 and Raw264.7 cells but not in TLR4−/− or MD2−/− bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Intravenous and intranasal administration of recombinant WRS protein induces an innate immune response and blocks viral replication in vivo. These findings suggest that secreted full-length WRS has a noncanonical role in inducing innate immune responses to viral infection as well as to bacterial infection. IMPORTANCE ARSs are essential enzymes in translation that link specific amino acids to their cognate tRNAs. In higher eukaryotes, some ARSs possess additional, noncanonical functions in the regulation of cell metabolism. Here, we report a novel noncanonical function of WRS in antiviral defense. WRS is rapidly secreted in response to viral infection and primes the innate immune response by inducing the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and type I IFNs, resulting in the inhibition of virus replication both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we consider WRS to be a member of the antiviral innate immune response. The results of this study enhance our understanding of host defense systems and provide additional information on the noncanonical functions of ARSs.