Objective Bladder cancer (BC) has the highest lifetime treatment costs per patient of all cancers. The high recurrence rate and ongoing invasive monitoring requirement are the key contributors to the economic and human toll of this disease. The purpose of this paper was to utilize the recent literature to identify opportunities for improving the beneWts and costs of BC care. Methods A PubMed search was performed of recent publications concerning (BC) cost-eVectiveness. We reviewed studies, reviews, opinion papers and cost-eVectiveness analyses, focusing primarily on non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer (Ta/T1; NMIBC). Results New diagnostic tools such as urine markers may assist in more cost-eVectively detecting BC at an earlier stage, however, these markers cannot replace the cystoscopy, which is the current standard of care. A photodynamic diagnostic tool (PDD) using hexylaminolevulinate (Hexvix ® ) enhances tumor visibility and improves transurethral resection of bladder cancer (TURB) results, potentially reducing recurrence rates and lowering treatment costs. While the importance of BC research has been acknowledged, research investment has been continuously reduced during the last 5 years. Conclusions The economic burden of BC is well-characterized in the literature. This study suggests that new technologies (i.e., urine-based tests, PDD) and therapeutic regimes (intravesical chemotherapy, adjuvant immunotherapy) have signiWcant potential to improve the diagnosis, treatment and on-going monitoring of BC patients, with potential improvements in clinical outcomes and concurrent cost-savings. A renewed interest and investment in BC research are required to ensure future advancements.

Future SCI investigations will be conducted to evaluate the potential benefits of even earlier SNM placement to progressively enhance pelvic organ functionality. This new approach may provide important clues required for assessing whether neuronal information is passed through the sympathetic trunk ganglion to the brain after complete SCI. Further investigations are needed to determine if functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) might be helpful for analyzing changes in brain function in patients with SNMs and those taking antimuscarinics.

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Injection of small aliquots of cells to investigate cell therapies in minipigs is a feasible and safe procedure, and it does not bias the intrinsic urethral wall pressure.