No abstract

Marriage was an important moment in the lives of two people who decided to establish a family and enter into new family and neighbourhood arrangements. In the Middle Ages, Polish wedding ceremonies were given a ritual form. Sacred tradition merged with newer Christian content and marriage was recognized as a sacrament which symbolically emphasized the importance of events and was supposed to provide future happiness for the newlyweds. The wedding ceremony was preceded by three public announcements in church. It was laid down that the ceremony be held in church and with witnesses. The main elements were the handshake, the exchange of gifts in the form of wreaths, rings or other gifts, and the words spoken: I take you to be my husband/wife.

This article presents the oldest European accounts that describe the reactions of animals to their own reflections on the surface of a body of water or in a mirror. The analysed sources will encompass Greco-Roman accounts, including the reception of these accounts in the Middle Ages. While this article belongs to the field of the history of science, it seeks to provide a historical commentary with insights from contemporary studies (the mirror test, MSR). The article presents surviving ancient and medieval accounts about particular animal species that describe their ability or inability to recognise a mirror reflection. The species discussed are the horse, mule, dog, birds (sparrow, partridge, rooster, quail, jackdaw, starling and pheasant), the monkey and tiger. Brief mention is also made of the sheep, pigeon, goose, parrot, raven and cat.

Marriage has always been a concern of the Church. The Christian doctrine gave matrimonium sacred meaning and at the same time fully endorsed the concept of mutual consent which originated from the Roman law. The act of abduction with its legal and ethical consequences was described in detail in the Decretum Gratiani. The punishment for the abductor was public penance and prohibition of marriage. If the fiancé was unwilling to take back the abducted bride he was allowed to marry another woman. However, if the fiancé and the bride wanted to get married afresh, they were to be both excommunicated until they had made their reparation. The Decretum Gratiani clearly indicated that the raptus puellae was an impediment which prevented marriage. The reason was the duress of abduction, which was contrasted with free will, voluntarily consent and the approval of father, parents or guardians.

Marriage has always been a concern of the Church. Christian doctrine gave matrimonium sacred meaning and at the same time fully endorsed the concept of mutual consent which originated from Roman law. The act of abduction with its legal and ethical consequences was described in detail in the Decretum Gratiani. The punishment for the abductor was public penance and prohibition of marriage. If the fiancé was unwilling to take back the abducted bride he was allowed to marry another woman. However, if the fiancé and the bride wanted to get married afresh, they were to be both excommunicated until they had made their reparation. The Decretum Gratiani clearly indicated that the raptus puellae was an obstacle which prevented marriage. The reason was the duress of abduction, which was contrasted with free will, voluntarily consent and the approval of father, parents or guardians.