Cervical cancer is associated with infection by certain types of human papillomaviruses (HPVs), and this affects women worldwide. Despite the improvements in prevention and cure of HPV-induced cervical cancer, it remains the second most common type of cancer in women in the least developed regions of the world. Epigenetic modifications are stable long-term changes that occur in the DNA, and are part of a natural evolutionary process of necessary adaptations to the environment. They do not result in changes in the DNA sequence, but do affect gene expression and genomic stability. Epigenetic changes are important in several biological processes. The effects of the environment on gene expression can contribute to the development of numerous diseases. Epigenetic modifications may serve a critical role in cancer cells, by silencing tumor suppressor genes, activating oncogenes, and exacerbating defects in DNA repair mechanisms. Although cervical cancer is directly related to a persistent high-risk HPV infection, several epigenetic changes have been identified in both the viral DNA and the genome of the infected cells: DNA methylation, histone modification and gene silencing by non-coding RNAs, which initiate and sustain epigenetic changes. In the present review, recent advances in the role of epigenetic changes in cervical cancer are summarized.

Background The seminal virome and its implications for fertility remain poorly understood. To date, there are no defined panels for the detection of viruses of clinical interest in seminal samples. Results In this study, we characterized the human seminal virome based on more than 1,000 studies published over the last five years. Conclusions The number of studies investigating viruses that occur in human semen has increased, and to date, these studies have been mostly prospective or related to specific clinical findings. Through the joint analysis of all these studies, we have listed the viruses related to the worsening of seminal parameters and propose a new panel with the main viruses already described that possibly affect male fertility and health. This panel can assist in evaluating semen quality and serve as a tool for investigation in cases of infertility.

The testicular environment is immunoprivileged to protect germ cells from autoimmune and anti-inflammatory activities, but, on the other hand, it is susceptible to pathogens. Until now, the works that investigated the microbiological diversity in this environment were restricted to analyzing specific bacteria or viral communities. In this study, we evaluated the diversity in the seminal human microbiome using a whole-genome sequencing approach in a seminal human pool. For this, we collected 50 samples donated by participants from a public reproductive health service in Brazil. We observed a high proportion of the Bacteria domain (71.3%), whose largest groups are Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium, and Streptococcus. The Eukaryotic domain (27.6%) comprises Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, and Trichinella. Viruses (1.1%) are composed of Gammaretrovirus, Herv-K, and Herv-W. These findings expand the current view of microbial diversity in human semen and point out that evaluating uncultivated pathogens could be crucial before concluding reproductive and prophylactic treatments. In addition, the Herv families identified in seminal samples deserve studies with a functional and evolutionary perspective. These data contribute to identifying potential pathogens present in the semen (gamma diversity) and their correlations and opening a new front for research in the diagnosis of fertility-related diseases.