Background The mechanisms underpinning the regenerative capabilities of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) were originally thought to reside in their ability to recognise damaged tissue and to differentiate into specific cell types that would replace defective cells. However, recent work has shown that molecules produced by MSCs (secretome), particularly those packaged in extracellular vesicles (EVs), rather than the cells themselves are responsible for tissue repair. Methods Here we have produced a secretome from adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADSC) that is free of exogenous molecules by incubation within a saline solution. Various in vitro models were used to evaluate the effects of the secretome on cellular processes that promote tissue regeneration. A cardiotoxin-induced skeletal muscle injury model was used to test the regenerative effects of the whole secretome or isolated extracellular vesicle fraction in vivo. This was followed by bioinformatic analysis of the components of the protein and miRNA content of the secretome and finally compared to a secretome generated from a secondary stem cell source. Results Here we have demonstrated that the secretome from adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells shows robust effects on cellular processes that promote tissue regeneration. Furthermore, we show that the whole ADSC secretome is capable of enhancing the rate of skeletal muscle regeneration following acute damage. We assessed the efficacy of the total secretome compared with the extracellular vesicle fraction on a number of assays that inform on tissue regeneration and demonstrate that both fractions affect different aspects of the process in vitro and in vivo. Our in vitro, in vivo , and bioinformatic results show that factors that promote regeneration are distributed both within extracellular vesicles and the soluble fraction of the secretome. Conclusions Taken together, our study implies that extracellular vesicles and soluble molecules within ADSC secretome act in a synergistic manner to promote muscle generation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13287-019-1213-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The secretome of human amniotic fluid stem cells (AFSCs) has great potential as a therapeutic agent in regenerative medicine. However, it must be produced in a clinically compliant manner before it can be used in humans. In this study, we developed a means of producing a biologically active secretome from AFSCs that is free of all exogenous molecules. We demonstrate that the full secretome is capable of promoting stem cell proliferation, migration, and protection of cells against senescence. Furthermore, it has significant anti-inflammatory properties. Most importantly, we show that it promotes tissue regeneration in a model of muscle damage. We then demonstrate that the secretome contains extracellular vesicles (EVs) that harbor much, but not all, of the biological activity of the whole secretome. Proteomic characterization of the EV and free secretome fraction shows the presence of numerous molecules specific to each fraction that could be key regulators of tissue regeneration. Intriguingly, we show that the EVs only contain miRNA and not mRNA. This suggests that tissue regeneration in the host is mediated by the action of EVs modifying existing, rather than imposing new, signaling pathways. The EVs harbor significant anti-inflammatory activity as well as promote angiogenesis, the latter may be the mechanistic explanation for their ability to promote muscle regeneration after cardiotoxin injury.

Snakebite is a major neglected tropical health issue that affects over 5 million people worldwide resulting in around 1.8 million envenomations and 100,000 deaths each year. Snakebite envenomation also causes innumerable morbidities, specifically loss of limbs as a result of excessive tissue/muscle damage. Snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) are a predominant component of viper venoms, and are involved in the degradation of basement membrane proteins (particularly collagen) surrounding the tissues around the bite site. Although their collagenolytic properties have been established, the molecular mechanisms through which SVMPs induce permanent muscle damage are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate the purification and characterisation of an SVMP from a viper (Crotalus atrox) venom. Mass spectrometry analysis confirmed that this protein is most likely to be a group III metalloprotease (showing high similarity to VAP2A) and has been referred to as CAMP (Crotalus atrox metalloprotease). CAMP displays both collagenolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities and inhibits CRP-XL-induced platelet aggregation. To determine its effects on muscle damage, CAMP was administered into the tibialis anterior muscle of mice and its actions were compared with cardiotoxin I (a three-finger toxin) from an elapid snake (Naja pallida) venom. Extensive immunohistochemistry analyses revealed that CAMP significantly damages skeletal muscles by attacking the collagen scaffold and other important basement membrane proteins, and prevents their regeneration through disrupting the functions of satellite cells. In contrast, cardiotoxin I destroys skeletal muscle by damaging the plasma membrane, but does not impact regeneration due to its inability to affect the extracellular matrix. Overall, this study provides novel insights into the mechanisms through which SVMPs induce permanent muscle damage.PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases | https://doi.Snakebite is a major neglected tropical disease that affects thousands of people in the rural areas of developing countries. As well as the deaths, snakebites result in a significant number of disabilities including permanent loss of limbs that alter the lifestyle of the victims. Snake venom is a mixture of different proteins with diverse functions; one of these major protein groups present in viper venoms are metalloproteases that primarily induce muscle damage. The mechanisms behind the development of snakebite (metalloprotease)induced permanent muscle damage are poorly studied. Here, we have purified a metalloprotease (CAMP) from the venom of the Western diamondback rattlesnake, and characterised its function in mice. To determine the actions of CAMP in the development of permanent muscle damage, it was injected into the muscle of mice in a parallel comparison with cardiotoxin I (from the venom of the Red spitting cobra). The effects of these proteins on muscle regeneration were analysed at 5 and 10 days after injection. The results demonstrate that through a combination of effects on the structural scaff...

Background Muscle wasting, anorexia, and metabolic dysregulation are common side‐effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy, having a dose‐limiting effect on treatment efficacy, and compromising quality of life and mortality. Extracts of Cannabis sativa, and analogues of the major phytocannabinoid Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol, have been used to ameliorate chemotherapy‐induced appetite loss and nausea for decades. However, psychoactive side‐effects limit their clinical utility, and they have little efficacy against weight loss. We recently established that the non‐psychoactive phytocannabinoid cannabigerol (CBG) stimulates appetite in healthy rats, without neuromotor side‐effects. The present study assessed whether CBG attenuates anorexia and/or other cachectic effects induced by the broad‐spectrum chemotherapy agent cisplatin. Methods An acute cachectic phenotype was induced in adult male Lister‐hooded rats by 6 mg/kg (i.p.) cisplatin. In total 66 rats were randomly allocated to groups receiving vehicle only, cisplatin only, or cisplatin and 60 or 120 mg/kg CBG (po, b.i.d.). Feeding behavior, bodyweight and locomotor activity were recorded for 72 hours, at which point rats were sacrificed for post‐mortem analyses. Myofibre atrophy, protein synthesis and autophagy dysregulation were assessed in skeletal muscle, plasma metabolic profiles were obtained by untargeted 1H‐NMR metabonomics, and levels of endocannabinoid‐like lipoamines quantified in plasma and hypothalami by targeted HPLC‐MS/MS lipidomics. Results CBG (120 mg/kg) modestly increased food intake, predominantly at 36‐60hrs (p<0.05), and robustly attenuated cisplatin‐induced weight loss from 6.3% to 2.6% at 72hrs (p<0.01). Cisplatin‐induced skeletal muscle atrophy was associated with elevated plasma corticosterone (3.7 vs 13.1ng/ml, p<0.01), observed selectively in MHC type IIx (p<0.05) and IIb (p<0.0005) fibres, and was reversed by pharmacological rescue of dysregulated Akt/S6‐mediated protein synthesis and autophagy processes. Plasma metabonomic analysis revealed cisplatin administration produced a wide‐ranging aberrant metabolic phenotype (Q2Ŷ=0.5380, p=0.001), involving alterations to glucose, amino acid, choline and lipid metabolism, citrate cycle, gut microbiome function, and nephrotoxicity, which were partially normalized by CBG treatment (Q2Ŷ=0.2345, p=0.01). Lipidomic analysis of hypothalami and plasma revealed extensive cisplatin‐induced dysregulation of central and peripheral lipoamines (29/79 and 11/26 screened, respectively), including reversible elevations in systemic N‐acyl glycine concentrations which were negatively associated with the anti‐cachectic effects of CBG treatment. Conclusions Endocannabinoid‐like lipoamines may have hitherto unrecognized roles in the metabolic side‐effects associated with chemotherapy, with the N‐acyl glycine subfamily in particular identified as a potential therapeutic target and/or biomarker of anabol...

Snakebite is a major neglected tropical health issue that affects over 5 million people worldwide resulting in around 1.8 million envenomations and 100,000 deaths each year. Snakebite envenomation also causes innumerable morbidities, specifically loss of limbs as a result of excessive tissue/muscle damage. Snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) are a pre-