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be used when that identity is at risk. For Cayli, the motivation to use cultural violence is independent of time and place, but its application and the methods used are bound by time and space. Because of changes in communications and technology, the militant jihadists used more advanced methods than did the rebels in the Ottoman Empire. Cayli also looks at structural violence, which he defines as "physical violence related to injustice resulting from the uneven distribution of power and poor living conditions in everyday life" (15). Structural violence has direct implications for the everyday life of citizens: it aims to emphasize deprivation and injustice. The exploration of this form of violence is necessary to fully understand the methods and choices made by militants. Cayli offers an important distinction between the jihadists and the rebels in the Ottoman Empire: the jihadists used extensive violence, along with advocating for a radical social change (a Caliphate, for example), whereas the rebels in the Ottoman Empire used more targeted (toward the elite, the rulers) and limited violence. This book draws on a wide variety of sources and stories to help us situate and understand the context and, more importantly, the histories that have been integrated and used by militant groups. Readers unfamiliar with the time and place of the analysis will find the information in this book useful, but even the connoisseur will appreciate the level of detail provided. The author's ability to draw on sources across multiple disciplines and to make a concise and highly persuasive argument are among the strengths of this brilliant work. One of the main criticisms of this book is the limited applicability of the paradigms and hypotheses to other groups or movements. Violence has certainly been used by nationalist groups, independentist groups, civil rights advocates, and so forth; whether or not the model and analysis offered by Cayli can be applied to these groups remains to be seen. Although Cayli offers accounts of two historical periods and geographical locations, the militant groups are still in the same region. This does not take away from the in-depth analysis and perspective offered by the author. "Writing about violence is emotionally challenging," writes Cayli. Reading about violence is also emotionally challenging, and the concluding chapter leaves this reader feeling a bit hopeless when told: "We will be subject to unpredictable transformations in this century. Yet some of these transformations are crystal clear when the issue is the use of violence by militants. We will bear witness to vendettas between militants and their opponents" (157). But one can hope that through powerful works such as this book, we humans may be able to overcome our differences and understand what leads to violence, in order to prevent it and make the world a better place for all.

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