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Examining intra-colonial punitive relocations during the first decade of US occupation in the Philippines, this article shows how colonial police and prison officials used incarceration and transportation in tandem to suppress incipient populist revolutionary movements. They exploited historic regional and religious tensions in their effort to produce new modes of racialized and gendered prison and labor management. Finally, while colonial officials sought to brand certain imprisoned subjects as criminal outlaws, rather than political prisoners, many of these anticolonial fighters actually sharpened their ideas about freedom through their experience of being criminalized, incarcerated, and forcibly relocated.

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In the fall of 2021, former Black Panther and renowned prison organizer Jalil A. Muntaqim's Spirit of Mandela campaign convened an international tribunal to investigate violations of US-held political prisoners' human rights. Invoking Nelson Mandela's imprisonment in apartheid South Africa, they called for the return of international jurists to reexamine the treatment of political prisoners in the United States under the United Nation's Nelson Mandela Rules. Along with the investigation itself, the campaign aims to expose the hypocrisy of the US human rights record, broaden the base of antiracist and anti-imperialist unity, build international solidarity, create a commission to remedy FBI persecution under COINTELPRO, and provide an official report to the United Nations, and "hence to the world." 1 Muntaquim launched the Spirit of Mandela campaign from inside New York's "Southport Gulag," three years before his release in October 2020. The coalition