Recent national reports suggest that nearly 1,000,000 families with children experience homelessness and that this number is rising (National Center on Family Homelessness, 2009; U.S. Conference of Mayors, 2010; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2011). Families experiencing homelessness are disproportionately more likely to have experienced economic, health, and social risk factors. These experiences can adversely influence the parent–child relationship. The purpose of this article is to (a) review the literature on the determinants and contextual issues of parenting in shelters; (b) describe specific programs that are focused on positive parenting in the context of homelessness; and (c) provide practice, research, and policy recommendations for supporting positive parenting among families living without homes.

This study examined the association between traumatic exposure and mental health outcomes in sheltered homeless children. Also investigated was the moderating role of perceived social support in the pathway between traumatic exposure and emotional distress. Trauma exposure was conceptualized in two ways: first through lifetime exposures to abuse, neglect, negative peers, community and interpersonal violence, and the loss of significant attachment figures, and; second through highly stressful events that occur specifically in the context of homelessness. Mental health outcomes included symptoms of depression, anxiety, anger, aggression and posttraumatic stress. Perceived social support was measured through inventories of relationships with mothers, fathers, siblings and best friends. The sample consisted of 81 children between the ages of 8-16 and one of their parents. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses found that lifetime trauma exposure and homeless specific complex stress independently accounted for a significant amount of the variance in symptoms of depression, anxiety, aggression, and posttraumatic stress. Lifetime trauma alone accounted for the variance in anger and anxiety related symptomatology.Perceived social support was found to have no influence on mental health morbidity. The study consisted of a novel approach to understanding the psychological experiences of sheltered homeless children.These findings inform the design of clinical interventions for this vulnerable population of children and may have important public policy implications. INDEX WORDS:Homeless children, shelters, trauma exposure, complex stress, Perceived social support. Leon Chafee, Margie Ayati, and Kara Snead. They used their free time to work diligently and under tough conditions. I thank them all for their commitment to my work and the well-being of the children and parents interviewed. I would also like to acknowledge and thank the clinicians who made themselves available to serve as emergency consultants to high risk families: TRAUMA EXPOSURE AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES IN

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