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BackgroundThe north-east Indian states of Manipur and Nagaland are two of the six high HIV prevalence states in the country, and the main route of HIV transmission is injecting drug use. Understanding the pathways to injecting drug use can facilitate early intervention with HIV prevention programs. While several studies of initiation into injecting drug use have been conducted in developed countries, little is known about the situation in developing country settings. The aim of this study was to increase understanding of the contextual factors associated with initiation into injecting drug use in north-east India, and the influence of these factors on subsequent initiation of others.MethodIn mid 2006 a cross-sectional survey among 200 injecting drug users (IDUs) was undertaken in partnership with local NGOs that provide HIV prevention and care services and advocacy for IDUs in Imphal, Manipur and Dimapur, Nagaland. The questionnaire elicited detailed information about the circumstances of the first injection and the contexts of participants' lives. Demographic information, self-reported HIV status, and details about initiation of others were also recorded.ResultsInitiation into injecting drug use occurred at 20 years of age. The drugs most commonly injected were Spasmo-proxyvon (65.5%) and heroin (30.5%). In 53.5% cases, a needle belonging to someone else was used. Two-thirds (66.7%) had used the drug previously, and 91.0% had known other IDUs prior to initiation (mean = 7.5 others). The first injection was usually administered by another person (94.5%), mostly a friend (84.1%). Initiation is a social event; 98% had others present (mean = 2.7 others). Almost 70% of participants had initiated at least one other (mean = 5 others). Initiation of others was independently associated with being male and unemployed; having IDU friends and using alcohol around the time of initiation; and having been taught to inject and not paid for the drug at the time of initiation.ConclusionTargeting harm reduction messages to (non-injecting) drug users and capitalising on existing IDU social networks to promote safe injecting and deter initiation of others are possible strategies for reducing the impact of injecting drug use and the HIV epidemic in north-east India.

BackgroundThere is good evidence for the effectiveness of opioid substitution therapy (OST) for injecting drug users (IDUs) in middle and high-income countries but little evidence regarding the provision of OST by non-government organisations (NGOs) in resource-poor settings. This paper reports on outcomes of an NGO-based OST program providing sub-lingual buprenorphine to opiate dependent IDUs in two north-east Indian states (Manipur and Nagaland), a region where conflict, under-development and injecting of heroin and Spasmoproxyvon (SP) are ongoing problems. The objectives of the study were: 1) to calculate OST treatment retention, 2) to assess the impact on HIV risk behaviours and quality of life, and 3) to identify client characteristics associated with cessation of treatment due to relapse.MethodsThis study involves analysis of data that were routinely and prospectively collected from all clients enrolled in an OST program in Manipur and Nagaland between May 2006 and December 2007 (n = 2569, 1853 in Manipur and 716 in Nagaland) using standardised questionnaires, and is best classified as operational research. The data were recorded at intake into the program, after three months, and at cessation. Outcome measures included HIV risk behaviours and quality of life indicators. Predictors of relapse were modelled using binary logistic regression.ResultsOf all clients enrolled in OST during the month of May 2006 (n = 713), 72.8% remained on treatment after three months, and 63.3% after six months. Statistically significant (p = 0.05) improvements were observed in relation to needle sharing, unsafe sex, incidents of detention, and a range of quality of life measures. Greater spending on drugs at intake (OR 1.20), frequently missing doses (OR 8.82), and having heroin rather than SP as the most problematic drug (OR 1.95) were factors that increased the likelihood of relapse, and longer duration in treatment (OR 0.76) and regular family involvement in treatment (OR 0.20) reduced the likelihood of relapse.ConclusionThe findings from this operational research indicate that the provision of OST by NGOs in the severely constrained context of Manipur and Nagaland achieved outcomes that are internationally comparable, and highlights strategies for strengthening similar programs in this and other resource-poor settings.

Manipur and Nagaland in northeast India report an antenatal HIV prevalence of > 1% and the current HIV prevalence among injecting drug users is 24% and 4.5% respectively. Through support from DFID's Challenge Fund, Emmanuel Hospital Association (EHA) established thirteen drop-incentres across the two states to deliver opioid substitution treatment with sublingual buprenorphine for 1200 injecting drug users. Within a short span of time the treatment has been found to be attractive to the clients and currently 1248 injecting opioid users are receiving opioid substitution treatment. The project is acceptable to the drug users, the families, the communities, religious as well as the militant groups. The treatment centres operate all days of the week, have trained staff members, utilize standardized protocols and ensure a strict supervised delivery system to prevent illicit diversion of buprenorphine. The drug users receiving the substitution treatment are referred to HIV voluntary counselling and testing. As this treatment has the potential to change HIV related risk behaviours, what has been established in the two states needs to be continued and expanded with the support from the Government of India.