N,N-diethylaminobenzaldehyde (DEAB) is a commonly used “selective” inhibitor of aldehyde dehydrogenase isoenzymes in cancer stem cell biology due to its inclusion as a negative control compound in the widely utilized Aldefluor assay. Recent evidence has accumulated that DEAB is not a selective inhibitory agent when assayed in vitro versus ALDH1, ALDH2 and ALDH3 family members. We sought to determine the selectivity of DEAB toward ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, ALDH1A3, ALDH1B1, ALDH1L1, ALDH2, ALDH3A1, ALDH4A1 and ALDH5A1 isoenzymes and determine the mechanism by which DEAB exerts its inhibitory action. We found that DEAB is an excellent substrate for ALDH3A1, exhibiting a Vmax/KM that exceeds that of its commonly used substrate, benzaldehyde. DEAB is also a substrate for ALDH1A1, albeit an exceptionally slow one (turnover rate ~0.03 min−1). In contrast, little if any turnover of DEAB was observed when incubated with ALDH1A2, ALDH1A3, ALDH1B1, ALDH2 or ALDH5A1. DEAB was neither a substrate nor an inhibitor for ALDH1L1 or ALDH4A1. Analysis by enzyme kinetics and QTOF mass spectrometry demonstrates that DEAB is an irreversible inhibitor of ALDH1A2 and ALDH2 with apparent bimolecular rate constants of 2900 and 86,000 M−1 s−1, respectively. The mechanism of inactivation is consistent with the formation of quinoid-like resonance state following hydride transfer that is stabilized by local structural features that exist in several of the ALDH isoenzymes.

Background: ALDH enzymes metabolize aldehydes in many pathways, including the inactivation of cyclophosphamide. Results: Covalent inhibitors against ALDH were discovered, and their mechanism of action was determined. Conclusion: Covalent inhibitors against ALDH potentiate cell killing in cyclophosphamide-resistant cells. Significance: These inhibitors represent novel research tools and can serve as leads toward therapeutics where increased ALDH activity is associated with disease.

We recently reported the discovery of a recombinant chimera, denoted DAVEI (dual-acting virucidal entry inhibitor), which is able to selectively cause specific and potent lytic inactivation of both pseudotyped and fully infectious human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) virions. The chimera is composed of the lectin cyanovirin-N (CVN) fused to the 20-residue membrane-proximal external region (MPER) of HIV-1 gp41. Because the Env gp120-binding CVN domain on its own is not lytic, we sought here to determine how the MPER(DAVEI) domain is able to endow the chimera with virolytic activity. We used a protein engineering strategy to identify molecular determinants of MPER(DAVEI) that are important for function. Recombinant mutagenesis and truncation demonstrated that the MPER(DAVEI) domain could be significantly minimized without loss of function. The dependence of lysis on specific MPER sequences of DAVEI, determination of minimal linker length, and competition by a simplified MPER surrogate peptide suggested that the MPER domain of DAVEI interacts with the Env spike trimer, likely with the gp41 region. This conclusion was further supported by observations from binding of the biotinylated MPER surrogate peptide to Env protein expressed on cells, monoclonal antibody competition, a direct binding enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay on viruses with varying numbers of trimeric spikes on their surfaces, and comparison of maximal interdomain spacing in DAVEI to that in high-resolution structures of Env. The finding that MPER(DAVEI) in CVN–MPER linker sequences can be minimized without loss of virolytic function provides an improved experimental path for constructing size-minimized DAVEI chimeras and molecular tools for determining how simultaneous engagement of gp120 and gp41 by these chimeras can disrupt the metastable virus Env spike.

Over the past three years we have been involved in high-throughput screening in an effort to discover novel small molecular modulators of aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity. In particular, we have been interested in both the activation and inhibitionof the three commonly studied isoenzymes, ALDH1A1, ALDH2 and ALDH3A1, as their distinct, yet overlapping substrate specificities, present a particularly difficult challenge for inhibitor discovery and design. Activation of ALDH2 has been shown to benefit cardiovascular outcome following periods of ischemia and renewed interest in specific inhibition of ALDH2 has application for alcohol aversion therapy, and more recently, in cocaine addiction. In contrast, inhibition of either ALDH1A1 or ALDH3A1 has application in cancer treatments where the isoenzymes are commonly over-expressed and serve as markers for cancer stem cells. We are taking two distinct approaches for these screens: in vitro enzyme activity screens using chemical libraries and virtual computational screens using the structures of the target enzymes as filters for identifying potential inhibitors, followed by in vitro testing of their ability to inhibit their intended targets. We have identified selective inhibitors of each of these three isoenzymes with inhibition constants in the high nanomolar to low micromolar range from these screening procedures. Together, these inhibitors provide proof for concept that selective inhibition of these broad specificity general detoxication enzymes through small molecule discovery and design is possible.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 3A1 (ALDH3A1) plays an important role in many cellular oxidative processes, including cancer chemo-resistance by metabolizing activated forms of oxazaphosphorine drugs such as cyclophosphamide (CP) and its analogues such as mafosfamide (MF), ifosfamide (IFM), 4-hydroperoxycyclophosphamide (4-HPCP). Compounds that can selectively target ALDH3A1 may permit delineation of its roles in these processes and could restore chemosensitivity in cancer cells that express this isoenzyme. Here we report the detailed kinetic and structural characterization of an ALDH3A1 selective inhibitor, CB29, previously identified in a high throughput screen. Kinetic and crystallographic studies demonstrate that CB29 binds within the aldehyde substrate-binding site of ALDH3A1. Cellular proliferation of ALDH3A1-expressing lung adenocarcinoma (A549) and glioblastoma (SF767) cell lines, as well as the ALDH3A1 non-expressing lung fibroblast cells, CCD-13Lu, is unaffected by treatment with CB29 and its analogues alone. However, the sensitivity toward the anti-proliferative effects of mafosfamide is enhanced by treatment with CB29 and its analogue in the tumour cells. In contrast, the sensitivity of CCD-13Lu cells toward mafosfamide was unaffected by the addition of these same compounds. CB29 is chemically distinct from the previously reported small molecule inhibitors of ALDH isoenzymes and does not inhibit ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, ALDH1A3, ALDH1B1 or ALDH2 isoenzymes at concentrations up to 250 μM. Thus, CB29 is a novel small molecule inhibitor of ALDH3A1, which may be useful as a chemical tool to delineate the role of ALDH3A1 in numerous metabolic pathways, including sensitizing ALDH3A1-positive cancer cells to oxazaphosphorines.