This study aims to evaluate the consistency and discrepancies in estimates of diabatic heating profiles associated with precipitation based on satellite observations and microphysics and those derived from the thermodynamics of the large-scale environment. It presents a survey of diabatic heating profile estimates from four Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) products, four global reanalyses, and in situ sounding measurements from eight field campaigns at various tropical locations. Common in most of the estimates are the following: (i) bottom-heavy profiles, ubiquitous over the oceans, are associated with relatively low rain rates, while top-heavy profiles are generally associated with high rain rates; (ii) temporal variability of latent heating profiles is dominated by two modes, a deep mode with a peak in the upper troposphere and a shallow mode with a low-level peak; and (iii) the structure of the deep modes is almost the same in different estimates and different regions in the tropics. The primary uncertainty is in the amount of shallow heating over the tropical oceans, which differs substantially among the estimates.

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Problem Management is not recognized as a Systems Engineering process. Unlike risk management, where risks could impact a project at some future date, problems impact the project now. Therefore, a robust Problem Management process should be established (similar to the risk management process described in Chapter 5 of the INCOSE handbook [Hamelin, Walden, and Krueger, INCOSE systems engineering handbook v3.2: Improving the process for SE practitioners, INCOSE, Seattle, WA, 2010]) early in a projects formulation. The process should be continuous throughout all phases of the project life cycle and should be included as a part of the project System Engineering Management Plan. The process should, at a minimum, address: problem identification, problem assessment, problem root cause investigation, problem corrective action planning, reporting, a roll‐up of all current problems, problem closure, and a strong interface with the project's knowledge management system. This paper proposes a Problem Management process based on the foundations of risk and opportunity management which could be used by corporations, government agencies, and programs to establish a robust problem management process for use on their projects. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng

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