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Understanding carbon emission profile of cities from multiple perspectives is a prerequisite to design just and effective carbon reduction policies. Previous studies on CO 2 emissions by cities are usually confined to production or consumption-based perspective, while income-based perspective has been neglected. To fill the gap, direct emissions (a.k.a. production-based emissions), upstream emissions driven by final demand (a.k.a. consumption-based emissions) and downstream emissions enabled by primary input (a.k.a. income-based emissions) in an urban economy are comprehensively explored and compared for the first time, taking Beijing as a case. In the period of 2005~2012, Manufacture of Nonmetallic Mineral Products/Construction/Processing of Petroleum, Coking, Processing of Nuclear Fuel is identified as the key contributor to carbon emission by Beijing from the production/consumption/income-based perspective, respectively, indicating each perspective can unveil important information which the other methods fail to discover. Moreover, driving forces of CO 2 emissions change in Beijing are uncovered using the structural decomposition analysis (SDA) from both the demand and supply sides. Emission intensity, production input and output structure change contribute to CO 2 emission decrease in Beijing, which are largely offset by population, final demand/primary input level and final demand/primary input structure change, resulting in a net 3.9 Mt reduction during 2005~2012. While current policies continue to highlight end-of-pipe measures in cities, more attention should be paid to demand (e.g., encouraging low-carbon consumption) and supply side (e.g., controlling capital investment in enterprises with large income-based CO 2 emissions).

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