Microorganisms, as successive members of the food web, play a major role in biological processes. They are found in environments ranging from extremely hot to harsh cold temperatures. Thus, the study of bacterial communities in various ecosystems is of great concern around the world. The glacier is one of the parts of the cryosphere, which is the key component and sensitive indicator of climatic and environmental changes. A glacial ecosystem is a habitat for various microorganisms, i.e., autotrophic and heterotrophic. Different physicochemical parameters like temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, the input of nutrient concentration, precipitation, ions concentrations, etc. influence the microbial diversity in the glacial ecosystem for their metabolic processes. Successive studies of bacterial communities in the Himalayan glacial ecosystem are reliable proxies to know the relationships between microbial biodiversity and climate change since the Himalayan glaciers are free from anthropogenic activities. After the study of the relevant literature, it is clear that the researches. have been carried out in the Polar Regions, and the Tibetan plateau mainly focused on the glacial ecosystem. This review concluded that Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia, and Actinobacteria were the most dominant bacterial phyla via 16S rRNA clone libraries and Illumina MiSeq. Alter in landscapes, nutrient cycles, exposure of light, shifting on the concentration of different elements, glacier retreats were the major components for survival strength of dominant bacterial phyla. However, limited studies on the glacial ecosystem of the Himalayas have been published. Thus, the study of bacterial abundance, diversity, and community in the Himalayas will help plug this research gap.

The presence of contaminants on the door handles surfaces of hospitals may be a common means of transfer of potentially pathogenic bacteria among users and can act as vehicles of diseases transmission. The aim of this study was to isolate, identify and evaluate the presence of bacterial contaminants and Methicillin Resistant Staphylococci (MRSA) with their antimicrobial susceptibility pattern present on the door handles of selected hospitals of Pokhara Metropolitan City, Western Nepal to take the necessary remedial measures. Isolation, identification and antimicrobial susceptibility test of bacteria were done using standard microbiological procedures. Further screening and confirmation of MRSA were done according to Clinical Laboratory Standard Institutes (CLSI) guidelines. Out of the 100 swab samples cultured, 96 (96%) showed bacterial growth. 62.86% (88/140) of the isolates were found to be Gram positive. Percentage distribution of the isolates showed that the most prevalent Gram-positive bacteria identified was Staphylococcus aureus (43.18%), followed by Coagulase negative Staphylococci (15.91%), Bacillus spp (11.36%), Diptheroides (10.23%) but considerable number of Micrococci (7.95%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (6.82%), Enterococci (4.55%). Prevalence of MRSA in this study was 39.47%. Significant difference in antibiotic resistance pattern was found among MRSA and MSSA isolates (P<0.05) reflecting increased ability of MRSA to develop resistance against various antimicrobials. Drugs like clindamycin, cefazoline and amikacin were found quite effective against MRSA in the present study would be better options for the management of such infections. MRSA strains’ contaminating on the door handles of hospitals may cause threat of infections to patients, hospital staffs, visitors to hospitals and people in the community. Thus, regular surveillance and disinfection with appropriate agent at regular interval would minimize the settlement and transmission of various pathogens including MRSA.Keywords: Contaminants; disinfection; door handles; hospital; MRSA; pathogen

Ramsar sites are wetlands of international importance covering major ecosystem processes and services. Bacterial communities play a significant role in the lacustrine ecosystem and release major nutrients in wetlands, yet little is known about controls over their distribution and abundance from the Ramsar site of Central Himalayas, Nepal. Thus, we studied the bacterial community composition, diversity, and functions in the wetlands (designed as Ramsar site, Ramsar no 2257) during the autumn and spring by using 16S rRNA gene-based Illumina MiSeq sequencing. We reported a pronounced variation in water physicochemical and biological properties (temperature, pH, Chl a, DOC, and TN), bacterial diversity, and community composition. Alpha diversity was highest in Autumn while beta diversity (based on unifrac distance) in spring. Our results uncovered the effect of nutrients on bacterial abundance, richness, and community composition. Most unique operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (58%) belonged to autumn, while 14% of the OTUs were shared between spring and autumn. Planctomycetes and Bacteroidetes dominated the spring exclusive OTUs; meanwhile, Actinobacteria dominated the autumn exclusive OTUs. Bacteria in these wetlands exhibited divergent roles; however, a higher abundance of bacteria associated with animal parasites and human pathogens indicated a public health risk. By disclosing the seasonal variation of bacterial community and their relationship with environmental factors, this first-hand work in the Ramsar site of Nepal will develop a baseline dataset for the scientific community that will assist in understanding the wetlands microbial ecology and biogeography.

Background: Hospital associated fomites like door handles can serve as vehicles in transmission of pathogens. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of Extended Spectrum β-Lactamase Producers (ESBLs) and antibiotic resistance of Gram-Negative pathogenic Bacteria isolated from door-handles in two selected hospitals in Pokhara Metropolitan City, Nepal.Methods: The study was conducted in selected hospitals in Pokhara Metropolitan, City, Western Nepal. A cross-sectional study design was used. The hospitals were selected randomly. A total of 100 swab samples were taken from door-handles. Isolation and identification of bacteria were done using standard microbiological procedures. An antibiotic susceptibility test, screening and confirmation of ESBLs were performed using the Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute’s guidelines.Results: Out of the 100 swab samples cultured, 96 (96%) showed bacterial growth. A total of one hundred and forty isolates were isolated in this study which were further identified based on cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics. The study also found that door handles/knobs had higher level of contamination in Outpatient Departments (OPDs), Emergency, Laboratory, General wards and Toilets, in that order as compared to Radiology Room, Staff rooms, Intensive Care Unit and Operation Theatre which were lower. The level of contamination varies depending on the traffic exposure and the environment. The most prevalent Gram-negative bacteria identified was Escherichia coli 28.85%, followed by Klebsiella spp 21.15%, Pseudomonas aeruginosa 15.38%, Proteus spp 11.54%, Enterobacter spp 9.62%, Acenetobacter spp 7.69%, Citrobacter spp 5.77%. The most effective drug of choice was Amikacin, Nitrofurantoin, Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Tetracycline and Imipenem for many gram-negative isolates. The overall prevalence of ESBLs in this study was 27.14%. Out of total 15 Escherichia coli isolated, 11(73.3%), Klebsiella spp 9/11 (81.8%); Pseudomonas spp 7/8 (87.5%), Proteus spp 4/6 (66.6%); Enterobacter spp 3/5 (60%), Acenetobacter spp 3/4 (75%) and Citrobacter spp 1/3 (33.3%) were found to be Extended B-Lactamase Producers (ESBLs).Conclusion: The high drug resistance of pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria and ESBLs in hospital environments strengthens the need for the effective and routine cleaning of door-handles in hospitals and may be the key factor in epidemiology of ESBL producing bacterial infection not only in a hospital setting but also in community.