The Na,K-ATPase (sodium pump) plays a central role in the physiology of arthropod photoreceptors as it re-establishes gradients for Na+ and K+ after light stimulation. We have mapped the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase in the photoreceptors of the blowfly (Calliphora erythrocephala) by immunofluorescent and immunogold cytochemistry, and demonstrate that the distribution pattern is more complex than previously presumed. High levels of sodium pumps have been detected consistently in all photoreceptors R1-8 on the nonreceptive surface, but no sodium pumps are found on the microvillar rhabdomere. Within the nonreceptive surface of the cells R1-6, however, the sodium pumps are confined to sites juxtaposed to neighboring photoreceptor or glial cells; no sodium pumps have been detected on the parts of the nonreceptive surface exposed to the intra-ommatidial space. In R7 and R8, the sodium pumps are found over the entire nonreceptive surface. The cytoskeletal protein spectrin colocalizes with the sodium pumps suggesting that linkage of the pump molecules to the spectrin-based submembrane cytoskeleton contributes to the maintenance of the complex pattern of pump distribution.

A new type of ant male dimorphism, consisting of wingless (ergatoid) and short-winged (brachypterous) males, was found in a species of the "Cardiocondyla kagutsuchi"-complex from Malaysia. The ergatoid males show the typical morphological and behavioral characteristics of those of many other Cardiocondyla species. The brachypterous males are morphologically intermediate between ergatoid males and typical winged males of other taxa in this genus. On one hand, they share a number of morphological and behavioral features with ergatoid males that might be adaptations to the loss of flight and intranidal mating: aggressive behavior towards rival males, a prolonged spermatogenesis, which is unique in winged males, paler body coloration, smaller compound eyes, shorter antennal funiculi, more rounded heads -perhaps due to the increased development of mandibular muscles, and an angular pronotum, probably for neck protection. Their short wings appear to protect the petiolar joints during fighting. On the other hand, the brachypterous males have not become as specialized as the ergatoids and to some extent keep the nature of the winged males of other species, i.e., they escape from the nest with a higher probability and with less injuries and do not show a reduction of the ocelli. In the sexual production season, the ergatoid males emerged first in small numbers and then both male morphs emerged in large numbers. The sex ratio was extremely female-biased in the earlier stage of sexual production, probably due to local mate competition.

Males of the ant Cardiocondyla show a dispersal dimorphism of a winged and wingless morph. The loss of flight has lead to morphological reductions in the wingless (ergatoid) males and also affected body size, eye size and pigmentation. As ergatoid males mate exclusively inside the maternal nest, they underlie increased male-male competition and therefore have also evolved additional changes in behaviour and physiology: in contrast to winged males, ergatoid males are highly aggressive towards each other and their spermatogenesis is prolonged compared to all other hymenopteran males. In addition to these two male morphs, we found males with an intermediate appearance. These "intermorphic" males provide a transitional stage between normal males in most investigated morphological and physiological parameters. As they are produced extremely rarely and only in colonies that switch between pure ergatoid to mixed male production, we argue that they likely represent a developmental mistake. Parallels between the determination of male morphs and female castes (queen-worker dimorphism and worker polymorphism) might help to understand how the large potential of phenotypic plasticity in both sexes of social insects is realised during development.

Close to the bases of the photoreceptive microvilli, arthropod photoreceptors contain a dense network of endoplasmic reticulum that is involved in the regulation of the intracellular calcium concentration, and in the biogenesis of the photoreceptive membrane. Here, we examine the role of the cytoskeleton in organizing this submicrovillar endoplasmic reticulum in honeybee photoreceptors. Immunofluorescence microscopy of taxol-stabilized specimens, and electron-microscopic examination of high-pressure frozen, freeze-substituted retinae demonstrate that the submicrovillar cytoplasm lacks microtubules. The submicrovillar region contains a conspicuous F-actin system that codistributes with the submicrovillar endoplasmic reticulum. Incubation of retinal tissue with cytochalasin B leads to depolymerization of the submicrovillar F-actin system, and to disorganization and disintegration of the submicrovillar endoplasmic reticulum, indicating that an intact F-actin cytoskeleton is required to maintain the architecture of this domain of the endoplasmic reticulum. We have also developed a permeabilized cell model in order to study the physiological requirements for the interaction of the endoplasmic reticulum with actin filaments. The association of submicrovillar endoplasmic reticulum with actin filaments appears to be independent of ATP, Ca2+ and Mg2+, suggesting a tight static anchorage.

Traits associated with courtship and mating can evolve rapidly and often result in striking differences in sexually selected traits among closely related species, for example, as in the displays of male bowerbirds, the coloration of male cichlid fish, and the song pulse rate in field crickets (reviewed by Broder et al., 2021;Svensson & Gosden, 2007;Zuk & Tinghitella, 2008). The morphology of ant males appears to be much more conservative and on a first glance differs little between congeneric species (e.g., Wheeler, 1910). The morphology and behavior of ant males are adapted to locating and approaching a female sexual and to mating. The typical mating syndromes of ants, male aggregation and female calling, do not give males much opportunity for elaborate courtship displays or male-male antagonism other than scramble competition (Boomsma et al., 2005;Hölldobler & Bartz, 1985). Ant males cannot easily obtain and defend a harem of queens and, like the males of other social Hymenoptera, start their sexual life with